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Previous research suggests that curiosity is sometimes induced by novel information one has no relevant knowledge about, but it is sometimes induced by new information about something that one is familiar with and has prior knowledge about. However, the conditions under which novelty or familiarity triggers curiosity remain unclear. Using metacognitive confidence judgments as a proxy to quantify the amount of knowledge, this study evaluates the relationship between the amount of relevant knowledge and curiosity. We reviewed previous studies on the relationship between subjective curiosity and confidence and reanalyzed existing large‐sample data. The findings indicate that the relationship between curiosity and confidence differs depending on the nature of the stimuli: epistemic versus perceptual. Regarding perceptual stimuli, curiosity is stronger when individuals have lower confidence levels. By contrast, for epistemic stimuli, curiosity is stronger when individuals have higher confidence levels. These results suggest that curiosity triggered by perceptual stimuli is based on perceived novelty, whereas that triggered by epistemic stimuli is based on familiarity with prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional theories frame curiosity as an intrinsic motivation to obtain information to resolve uncertainty. Recent empirical breakthroughs challenge this perspective and reframe curiosity in terms of the learning process itself: curiosity is sustained when individuals perceive improvements in their performance and actively engage in the process of learning. Unlike previous research, which remained agnostic about the change of curiosity over time, the learning progress framework provides insights into the temporal dynamics of curiosity, shedding light on its fluctuations based on the extent of learning progress individuals make. By integrating the desire to obtain information with the drive to make learning progress, we offer a unified account of curiosity. What drives our curiosity remains an elusive and hotly debated issue, with multiple hypotheses proposed but a cohesive account yet to be established. This review discusses traditional and emergent theories that frame curiosity as a desire to know and a drive to learn, respectively. We adopt a model-based approach that maps the temporal dynamics of various factors underlying curiosity-based exploration, such as uncertainty, information gain, and learning progress. In so doing, we identify the limitations of past theories and posit an integrated account that harnesses their strengths in describing curiosity as a tool for optimal environmental exploration. In our unified account, curiosity serves as a 'common currency' for exploration, which must be balanced with other drives such as safety and hunger to achieve efficient action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This research embarked on an experimental study to gauge the efficacy of the Smart Heuristic Kit in enhancing learning outcomes for students diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD Level 1) in the UAE. Conducted in Abu Dhabi, the study involved 50 students aged 6-12 from a specialized autism center. Throughout a semester (Oct-Dec 2022), teachers integrated the Smart Heuristic Kit into the conventional curriculum, overseeing its use to meet designated educational objectives. The primary results indicate that the kit significantly influenced students' vocal awareness, reading basics, word recognition, speaking fluency, and overall learning performance. However, it did not markedly affect their comprehension related to autism learning. Moreover, the skills appear interrelated, with pronounced relationships between vocal awareness, reading basics, word recognition, and speaking fluency. Comprehension displayed a weaker correlation with the other skills but remained significant. The research findings provide insights into novel methods that could reshape learning paradigms for autistic students in the region. They also highlight various theoretical and practical implications and suggest avenues for future research.

Background and Study Aim. Implementation of dance in physical education is in conformity with the requirements of modern education which fosters lifelong exercise for health and quality of life. The study aimed to determine which of the applied teaching styles would have the most significant impact on dance learning and the improvement of dance performance. Additionally, to assess the effects of these teaching styles on factors such as Task climate, Social relatedness, Autonomy, and Ego climate, as well as the relationship between these effects and gender. Material and Methods. The study was carried out on a sample of 58 students attending a university study program for a Physical Education teacher, aged between 20 and 22, divided into three groups: reciprocal (N=19), self-check (N=18), and command (N=21). The study utilized the Motivational Climate on Physical Education Scale (MCPES). Results. The two-way Analysis of variance and the Tukey Post Hoc Test were used to analyse the differences in teaching styles as well as differences according to gender. During the learning process, differences between teaching styles progressively increased. The preferred teaching style in partner dances was the reciprocal style, which led to a significant improvement in the learning process, particularly among female students. Conclusions. The obtained results suggest that the reciprocal style is the most effective method for learning dances that are performed in pairs. Student-centred teaching style more than teacher –centred, should be preferred when learning dances.

This study aimed to assess high school student's understanding of Banjarmasin by Rasch modeling, precisely the cognitive aspect. The research method was descriptive with a quantitative approach to assess the pattern of reactions and symptoms of Rasch data. According to the research findings, the person reliability (students) was +0.66 based on the Rasch modeling analysis, with the criterion satisfactory, indicating that the students knowledge was adequate. At the same time, Cronbachs' alpha score had a value of +0.71 and met the criteria of excellent. In addition, the students with the highest level of understanding were coded 127P12B with a logit value (person measure) of 2.52 and average students with logit value of -0.77 or <0. In contrast, the students with low abilities were coded 030P10B and 059L11B (same logit value, -3.27 or <0). Other data were INFIT MNSQ and OUTFIT MNSQ (person) with average values of +0.99 and +1.14 (closer to 1, the better), while the INFIT and OUTFIT ZSTD values were -0.1 and 0.0 respectively (closer to 0, better). The most difficult question was Q16, which had a logit score of 1.96; students' logit values carried this question. Students were regarded to have appropriate knowledge even though their ability exceeded the problem ability. In conclusion, the Rasch model-based pre-learning evaluation was found to be useful in measuring students' cognitive grasp of chemical bonding material. This study could serve as the primary reference for teachers in assessing students' level of knowledge before they begin learning. In addition to interpreting student knowledge through various Rasch data presentations, a study of the structure of questions with varying difficulty levels could be used to assess the full group of students' understanding of chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reflective practice (RP) and reflective journal writing (RJW) are considered the most important ways to enhance students' learning progress. During the pandemic, offline learning has replaced online learning to keep students safe and healthy. This research solely examined reflective practice during online learning, which is significant as online education is less effective and students carry the full study load. However, this study's core purpose was to determine international graduate students' perceptions regarding RP and RJW during online learning in the pandemic period. It also investigated whether student engagement in RP enhances their critical reflection and learning progress. The mixed-method (QUAN-QUAL) approach was utilized in this study. The sample consisted of 123 international graduate students who were enrolled in various disciplines and majors in China and at least attended two consecutive semesters (24 weeks) online. The survey questionnaire was based on 28 items to collect the quantitative data. The questionnaire was categorized into four variables: self-education, learning progress, critical reflection, and engagement. While semi-structured interviews were conducted with 5 participants for qualitative data collection, the quantitative results indicated that all of the statements received good ranks and could be used to study how reflective journals helped students improve their self-education, critical reflection, writing skills, learning progress, and engagement. In addition, the results revealed a statistically significant beneficial association between engagement, self-education, critical reflection, and learning progress. Qualitative findings corroborated the quantitative results that participation in RP and RJW boosted students' critical thinking skills and facilitated their learning and development. Based on the results, this study concluded that RP or RJW enhance success ratios as well as critical reflection, which is effective not only in learning but also in professional and practical settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teachers must often be familiar with learning styles and related issues to organise and teach effectively. Concerning the difficulties associated with employing a learning style preference strategy, teachers should provide an opportunity for all students to work with their chosen style and in the domain of their intelligence profile. Allowing for different systems at different times and providing learners with some control in how they approach specific activities and respond to specific "needs" of education are all part of this condition. Some of these options may look simple and insignificant, but for some students, they can significantly impact their learning progress. As a result, the scientists were obligated to look into the learning patterns of secondary school students. The researcher chose 600 students from public and private secondary schools in rural and urban Visakhapatnam districts for the study and collected data using a random sample technique. The researcher used a self-created questionnaire to determine the students' favourite learning modes. It consists of 50 claims that are assessed on a five-point scale. The split-half reliability coefficient of the instrument is 0.788, and the scale's validity is based on content and construct validity. This study attempted to study the learning styles of secondary school students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The onset of COVID19 forced restructuring of the teaching-learning system from replacement of offline education to online education - to ensure continuation of learning. Sudden transition in the education mode is bound to affect students' learning progress and may lead to learning loss. Under a circumstance of lack of empirical evidence, the present study renders some empirical insights on the factors leading to learning loss of students from different educational levels. For this purpose, 228 students from each educational level of institution - school, colleges and university - have been selected by applying a stratified random sampling technique. We apply ordered logistic regression to investigate the factors affecting the success of the online teachinglearning system and compare the same along different parameters like location and ownership of the institution, and gender of the students. The findings indicate that inadequacy of digital infrastructure and the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of students contribute to high levels of learning loss. Further, the location of the educational institute adds to discrepancies in learning progress. The study suggests the requirement of providing necessary support to remove the digital divide and ensure equitable access to learning platforms at all educational levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher education policies are designed to facilitate students' learning progression and academic success. Following Tinto's integration theory and Bean's attrition model, this study proposes a research model to investigate whether students prone to attrition can be pre-emptively identified through self-evaluating academic factors contributing to their learning progress. Theoretically, the learning progress is identified with student success, represented by factors amenable to intervention including the interaction with peers and instructors, teaching effectiveness, exam scores, absenteeism, students' effort, and academic course-related variables. An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of 530 undergraduate students revealed that the indicators of learning progress in such students were channeled into two constructs. The results indicated that the teacher effectiveness and learning materials contributed most to the learning progress. Structural equation modelling revealed that the learning progress variables have a significant impact on students' attrition status. A multi-group analysis confirmed the academic semesters to be a moderator in the mediating effects of the students' grade point average (GPA). This model functions as a framework to design a student-oriented learning system promoting students' learning experience and academic success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although technological innovation has enabled a new wave of warehouse automation, human involvement remains necessary for most order picking operations in grocery retailing. This has spawned new forms of interaction between humans, machines, and intelligent software, that is, cyber‐sociotechnical systems. However, scant empirical field‐based research has been conducted on how this transition impacts human learning and the perception of work characteristics. Considering that humans are an essential element of these systems, it is fundamentally important to quantify the impact of these transformations when aspiring to improve performance, quality, and workers' well‐being as primary outcomes of order picking systems. This study utilized a mixed‐methods design, developing and applying parametric and non‐parametric approaches to operationalize learning progress, and semi‐structured interviews were conducted to examine perceived work characteristics. The findings indicate that the perception–cognition–motor–action cycle for learning by doing tasks can be accelerated through real‐time feedback provided by the order picking system. Furthermore, perceived work autonomy and feedback from the picking system are constant or perceived as greater when human decisions are accepted. The results have valuable implications for logistics practitioners, emphasizing the need for human‐centered work system design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports the measured impact of attendance at after school science club (ASSC) on the progress and attainment of Key stages 3 and 4 students in a co-education academy in the UK. The research was experimental in design and collected data from both a control and an experimental group of participants, 17 and 140 respectively. Data were collected through observation, questionnaires, focus groups and test performance scores. The data were subjected to various statistical analyses using SPSS. The means of performance scores for students in both control and experimental groups were tested for significance at different time points using Welch's T-test, and the effect of the ASSC on science performance scores across the different time points for both groups was tested (pre and post-tests) using the Kruskal Wallis test. The questionnaire was analyzed using thematic analysis with recurrent themes identified following a process of coding to establish the skills that students can gain from attending and participating in an ASSC. The study found that the experimental group, who attended ASSC showed improvements in their academic attainment although most participants identified the acquisition of non-academic skills as the more significant outcome of their engagement. These skills included collaboration and teamwork, leadership and communication skills, and confidence in learning. Drawing on the findings, the study provides evidence that discipline-specific after-school clubs can facilitate learning and recommends that discipline-informed extra-curricular activities should be promoted in facilitating learning in STEM subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The study outlined pandemic-related difficulties for students with disabilities. • It examined the physical, socioemotional, self-care, and educational factors influencing the academic performance and motivation of students with disabilities. • Using REDS survey data, the study analysed the impact of the COVID-19 disruption on 3,195 eighth-grade students. • Support helped students to show progress in motivation to complete schoolwork, to plan, to keep up with and confidence in completing schoolwork. • Wellbeing and satisfaction emerged as the most predictive variables influencing students' overall learning experiences during disruption. During the COVID-19 pandemic, school closures worldwide highlighted the existence of certain educational gaps. The sudden and unplanned shift to online learning accentuated challenges including social, emotional, and technical barriers that exacerbated the difficulties experienced by students with disabilities such as limitations on social interaction and technology access. Based on this, the current study aimed to provide a snapshot of the difficulties experienced by students with disabilities during the pandemic from a global perspective, and to explore the impact of different types of support—physical, socioemotional, self-care, and educational—on the academic performance and motivation of students with disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Responses to Educational Disruption Survey (REDS), conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), provided survey data captured from between December 2020 and July 2021 in order to examine the effects of the COVID-19 disruption on students, teachers, and school principals. In total, the study sample was comprised of 3,195 eighth-grade students from 692 schools across five countries who self-reported as having a disability. To address the study's research questions, certain variables were derived through cluster analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) utilising the items in REDS. R software was employed in this analysis and visualisation, while IBM's SPSS (version 27.0) was utilised for the verification of assumptions and for conducting hierarchical regression analysis. According to the results, a significant relationship was found to exist between students' receiving support and experiencing improved progress in certain subjects compared to before COVID-19, as well as increased motivation to complete schoolwork, capacity to plan for schoolwork completion, ability to keep up with schoolwork, and confidence in completing schoolwork. Overall, the most predictive variable affecting the learning experience of students with a disability during the COVID-19 disruption period was derived from their feelings related to the variables of wellbeing and satisfaction, followed by learning progress as an academic engagement variable, and subsequently by schoolwork and feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our literature review has revealed that the definition of learning progress as a function of formative feedback remains unclear, which continues to the lack of well‐reasoned learning progress feedback (LPF) strategies. Also, few scholars have empirically examined student perceptions of informed learning progress in solving a complex problem. The current study aims (a) to generate insights that elaborate LPF in a technology‐enhanced learning environment and (b) to gain better knowledge about LPF design for technology‐enhanced formative assessment and feedback. In this design experiment, we proposed LPF design strategies in five categories. Then, we experimented with two LPF prototypes to see how students reacted to the LPF features and how students perceived the value of LPF feedback. In the context of a graduate‐level online course with 35 student participants, we performed a mixed‐data analysis. Results indicate that students benefited from the two LPF designs to navigate their learning progress. Students' LPF preference appeared to relate to their feedback literacy regarding revision behavior, cognitive progress, and emotional reaction. The current findings lay the groundwork for elaborate LPF models that are pedagogically effective and adaptive to diverse student needs. The proposed LPF design typology and further design suggestions can help advance LPF design experiments and improve technology‐based formative feedback that enables students to pursue mastery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to COVID-19, non-F2F (non-face-to-face) learning is being conducted in educational sites around the world. Unlike theoretical subjects, which have a variety of applicable non-F2F learning content, in practical subjects, learners may undergo many difficulties due to many learning activities. Therefore, this research tries to design and develop a mobile application that allows learners to perform a self-diagnostic on their learning progress. In this research, we conducted a mobile application usability evaluation for 36 students who participated in non-F2F Arduino practice learning. To this end, we applied the ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, and Evaluation) model to develop a self-diagnostic mobile application for students' learning progress according to the learning content. The research tool modified and distributed the question item appropriate for this subject's study for the mobile usability evaluation that was used in the previous study. This research applied the ADDIE model to analyze the characteristics of students and learning contents, including designed learning contents, database, menu structure, developed learning contents, and mobile application. After using this in non-F2F practice learning for 15 weeks, a mobile application usability evaluation was conducted. As a result of the study, due to receiving usability scores between 3.53 and 4.42, it was found that the learning progress self-diagnostic in non-F2F practice learning was essential and that mobile applications were useful in non-F2F practice learning. Additionally, 33 out of 36 students responded that it would be useful for their learning if they actively used it in other subjects as well. We have found that leveraging self-diagnostic mobile applications through the mobile application usability evaluation tool can be useful for non-F2F practice learning. Additionally, it is expected to be useful for non-F2F practice learning if additional research is conducted on other factors as well such as teaching presence, online learning engagement, and learning flow in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acquisition of warranted domain-specific knowledge is essential for practical work in medicine. The medical field, however, suffers from 'information overload', and students and physicians rely on access to verified, up-to-date information. Based on prior research, we investigated (1) which media medical students use for learning, (2) how their media use changes over the course of studies, and (3) how their media use and changes therein influence their acquisition of medical knowledge. Moreover, we examined (4) the influence of factors such as media overload. In a pre-post design, we assessed the development of students' medical knowledge before (T1) and after (T2) attending physiology seminars, and examined the relationship between their knowledge development and media use. Our analyses showed a significant increase in students' domain-specific knowledge after the seminars. In contrast, their media use behavior did not change substantially, with online sources being used more frequently than textbooks and course materials. An increased use of additional textbooks and online sources from T1 to T2 was linked to a stronger increase in knowledge. The results indicate that students' media use behavior influences their knowledge gain over their course of study, which has important implications for developing curricula in medical education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to provide evidence regarding the interpretation that test scores of a newly developed test instrument reflect learning progress in competence in sustainability management. As competence in sustainability management is conceptualised as mainly acquired through academic opportunities to learn (OTLs), students in courses with relevant academic OTLs (focus group) should display greater learning progress than those without (control group). Non-academic OTLs should not predict learning progress. 499 students were tested between winter term 2017/2018 and summer term 2018. We specify SEM with fixed effects for the courses and calculate linear contrasts between the focus and control group. In addition, we predict learning progress by self-rated academic and non-academic OTLs. Results show that for two of the tests, academic OTLs indeed predict learning progress on course level and non-academic OTLs do not. In sum, evidence suggests that scores for two of the tests reflect learning progress in competence in sustainability management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from a computer‐based formative feedback system, we compare learning gains in the 8 weeks of school closures related to the COVID‐19 pandemic in Switzerland with learning gains in the 8 weeks before these school closures. The school performance in mathematics and language of N = 28,685 pupils is modelled in second‐order piecewise latent growth models with strict measurement invariance for the two periods under investigation. While secondary school pupils remain largely unaffected by the school closures in terms of learning gains, for primary school pupils learning slows down and at the same time interindividual variance in learning gains increases. Distance learning arrangements seem an effective means to substitute for in‐person learning, at least in an emergency situation, but not all pupils benefit to the same degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Trait and state positive emotions are positively associated with PDLP. • Trait and state self-regulation held positive associations with PDLP. • Surprisingly, trait negative emotion is positively associated with PDLP. • The interaction of state positive emotions and self-regulation positively impacts PDLP. • Note. PDLP: Perceived daily learning progress. Previous research is replete with evidence that emotions and self-regulation work together to influence learning performance, but distinct trait and state features of emotions and self-regulation are rarely considered. With an analytic sample comprising 9,501 daily diaries from 280 adolescents participating in a self-driven learning program, this study used multilevel modeling to examine how trait and state positive and negative emotions and self-regulation interact to predict adolescents' perceived daily learning progress. Results suggested that daily perceived learning progress was associated with trait and state positive emotions and self-regulation, as well as trait negative emotions. Furthermore, there was a significant positive interaction between state positive emotions and state self-regulation on perceived daily learning progress, such that when adolescents' state self-regulation was higher than usual, their perceived daily learning progress was more sensitive to state positive emotion. Results underscore the importance of enhancing adolescents' self-regulation and positive emotion, and the feasibility of facilitating adolescents' learning even if they are in a state of greater negative emotion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is a plea for the use of formative assessment – with a focus on the role of feedback – in order to develop students’ learning, including Learning to learn competence. We deal, mainly, with such aspects related to making learning visible for the students: learning goals, learning success criteria, assessment of learning progress, learning improvement, development of self-efficacy, self-assessment, use of mistakes as opportunities for learning. The view of formative assessment employed belongs to Royce D. Sadler.

Due to COVID-19, non-F2F (non-face-to-face) learning is being conducted in educational sites around the world. Unlike theoretical subjects, which have a variety of applicable non-F2F learning content, in practical subjects, learners may undergo many difficulties due to many learning activities. Therefore, this research tries to design and develop a mobile application that allows learners to perform a self-diagnostic on their learning progress. In this research, we conducted a mobile application usability evaluation for 36 students who participated in non-F2F Arduino practice learning. To this end, we applied the ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, and Evaluation) model to develop a self-diagnostic mobile application for students’ learning progress according to the learning content. The research tool modified and distributed the question item appropriate for this subject’s study for the mobile usability evaluation that was used in the previous study. This research applied the ADDIE model to analyze the characteristics of students and learning contents, including designed learning contents, database, menu structure, developed learning contents, and mobile application. After using this in non-F2F practice learning for 15 weeks, a mobile application usability evaluation was conducted. As a result of the study, due to receiving usability scores between 3.53 and 4.42, it was found that the learning progress self-diagnostic in non-F2F practice learning was essential and that mobile applications were useful in non-F2F practice learning. Additionally, 33 out of 36 students responded that it would be useful for their learning if they actively used it in other subjects as well. We have found that leveraging self-diagnostic mobile applications through the mobile application usability evaluation tool can be useful for non-F2F practice learning. Additionally, it is expected to be useful for non-F2F practice learning if additional research is conducted on other factors as well such as teaching presence, online learning engagement, and learning flow in the future.

Abstract Background Prehospital trauma care is stressful and requires multi-professional teamwork. A decrease in the number of accident victims ultimately affects the routine and skills and underlines the importance of effective training. Standardized courses, like PHTLS, are established for health care professionals to improve the prehospital care of trauma patients. The aim of the study was to investigate the subjective safety in prehospital trauma care and learning progress by paramedics in a longitudinal analysis. Methods This was a prospective intervention trial and part of the mixed-method longitudinal EPPTC-trial, evaluating subjective and objective changes among participants and real patient care as a result of PHTLS courses. Participants were evaluated with pre/post questionnaires as well as one year after the course. Results We included 236 datasets. In the pre/post comparison, an increased performance could be observed in nearly all cases. The result shows that the expectations of the participants of the course were fully met even after one year (p = 0.002). The subjective safety in trauma care is significantly better even one year after the course (p

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to find out how the application of science-based natural materials center is able to improve the development of children's learning that includes aspects of language, physical-motor and cognitive children aged 5—6 years. The method used in this research is classroom action research. Subjects in this study were 18 children in the age group of 5—6 years. Based on the results of the application of science-based natural materials center applied to children aged 5—6 years in learning activities in kindergarten, able to improve the development of children's learning that includes aspects of language, physical-motor, and cognitive. Abstrak: Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana penerapan sentra bahan alam berbasis sains mampu untuk meningkatkan perkembangan belajar anak yang meliputi aspek bahasa, fisik-motorik, dan kognitif anak usia 5—6 tahun. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini ialah penelitian tindakan kelas (PTK). Subjek dalam penelitian ini ialah 18 anak pada kelompok usia 5—6 tahun. Berdasarkan hasil penerapan sentra bahan alam berbasis sains yang diterapkan pada anak usia 5—6 tahun dalam kegiatan pembelajaran di taman kanak-kanak, mampu meningkatkan perkembangan belajar anak yang meliputi aspek bahasa, fisik-motorik, dan kognitif.

While a substantial body of work has shown that cognitive effort is aversive and costly, a separate line of research on intrinsic motivation suggests that people spontaneously seek challenging tasks. According to one prominent account of intrinsic motivation, the learning progress motivation hypothesis, the preference for difficult tasks reflects the dynamic range that these tasks yield for changes in task performance (Kaplan & Oudeyer, 2007). Here we test this hypothesis, by asking whether greater engagement with intermediately difficult tasks, indexed by subjective ratings and objective pupil measurements, is a function of trial-wise changes in performance. In a novel paradigm, we determined each individual's capacity for task performance and used difficulty levels that are low, intermediately challenging or high for that individual. We demonstrated that challenging tasks resulted in greater liking and engagement scores compared with easy tasks. Pupil size tracked objective task difficulty, where challenging tasks were associated with greater pupil responses than easy tasks. Most importantly, pupil responses were predicted by trial-to-trial changes in average accuracy as well as learning progress (derivative of average accuracy), while greater pupil responses also predicted greater subjective engagement scores. Together, these results substantiate the learning progress motivation hypothesis stating that the link between task engagement and cognitive effort is mediated the dynamic range for changes in task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]