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While research indicates that relationship-centered environments support student learning and success, it has been difficult to redesign secondary schools based on the factory model in ways that center relationships, particularly at the secondary level. This brief to the full report focuses on efforts to advance relationship-centering schooling in high schools. It examines the Relationship Centered Schools (RCS) campaign, a youth-led effort supported by Californians for Justice (CFJ) and conducted in collaboration with educators and district leaders. The study focuses on two settings--the Long Beach Unified School District and Fresno's McLane High School--and the efforts of local actors to center relationship-building as a catalyst for change.

In the 2022-23 school year, Arizona began implementation of a "universal voucher" program through which all school-age students are eligible for a voucher, and families can use public funding to underwrite private or homeschool education for their children. Universal vouchers in Arizona are an expansion of the existing Empowerment Scholarship Account (ESA) program, which was targeted to students with special education needs or in specific circumstances. To better understand this program's impact on Arizona public schools, this report undertook a financial review of the expanded Arizona ESA program using publicly available data from the state budget, which details total state expenditures and student enrollment; Arizona Department of Education (ADE) quarterly reports to the State Board of Education, which detail the number of ESA applications received, approved, and denied; and ADE enrollment figures. The authors analyzed student enrollment in the program, the combined cost of the earlier enacted ESA program and the new universal voucher program, and their effects on education funding in the state. This report outlines the cost estimates and calculations in detail.

Recruiting and retaining a well-prepared, stable, and diverse teacher workforce is a critical endeavor to advance student learning and development. However, the persistent teacher shortages across the nation's schools challenge this mission. The teaching profession has been characterized by relatively lower levels of compensation compared to other professions that require equivalent levels of educational attainment, and salaries are often cited both as a reason why college students do not pursue teaching and as a driver of attrition among current teachers. Another barrier to entering and staying in the teaching profession is the cost of investments to become a teacher, along with the cost of attaining a higher degree or additional credential-requirements that have become not only more common for career advancement but also more expensive over time. This report analyzes one condition that is intertwined with teacher compensation, preparation and credentialing, and job-related stress: student loan debt. Against the backdrop of the current state of teaching, the strains arising from student loans and the return to repayment could pose additional challenges not only for teachers but also for policymakers and school leaders who want to support a highly qualified, stable, and diverse teaching workforce. Using data from the National Teacher and Principal Survey from 2020-21, this report describes the state of student loan borrowing and repayment among full-time, public school teachers and explores whether student loan burdens differ by teacher characteristics. The analyses also examine the extent to which student loan debt is associated with teachers' well-being and employment decisions. The report concludes with recommendations that support the expansion of programs that alleviate or minimize the costs of comprehensive teacher preparation and credentialing; improve teaching conditions; and promote high-quality preparation, career advancement, and retention. [This research was supported by Skyline Foundation.]

In recent years, there has been a growing understanding that consistent developmental relationships support student learning and well-being. Research shows that youth who have positive connections with adults at their schools demonstrate higher levels of motivation, self-esteem, and prosocial behavior than their peers in less relationship-centered contexts. Relationship-centered schools also enable a range of positive student academic outcomes, including increased attendance, graduation rates, achievement on English language arts and math assessments, and college-going rates. Relationship-centered schools challenge ingrained structures that have come to characterize U.S. secondary schools and often inhibit their growth and sustainability through institutional, normative, and policy barriers. While research indicates that relationship-centered environments positively support student learning and success, it has been difficult to build and sustain schools with relationships at their foundation, particularly at the secondary level. This report focuses on one relationship-centered high school transformation effort--the Relationship Centered Schools (RCS) campaign, a youth-led effort supported by the community-based organization Californians for Justice (CFJ). Through interviews with CFJ organizers, district and school leaders, practitioners, and current and former youth organizers, this report highlights examples of uptake in two settings--the Long Beach Unified School District and Fresno's McLane High School. The cases demonstrate how local schools and districts have furthered relationship-centered schooling, the conditions and factors that have enabled or hindered RCS work, and the emerging impacts of RCS efforts on practice and policy.

Language and culture are central to learning and human development, as they shape the ways in which people all learn and grow together. Individuals learn as members of a community that values their participation and is respectful, productive, and inclusive. This report tells the story of the UCLA Community School (UCLA-CS), a public school in central Los Angeles. This report draws from a portfolio of research-practice partnerships at UCLA-CS, and it documents the norms, structures, and practices present on campus. By providing practitioners with an example of a community school that prioritizes the needs of students in immigrant communities, this report demonstrates an approach that can serve all students. The study of UCLA-CS indicates that the following six key practices at the school contribute to its success. UCLA Community School: (1) Knows and builds on a community's history, assets, and culture; (2) Develops and articulates desired core competencies for students; (3) Nurtures shared leadership and collective agency; (4) Creates space for collaborative inquiry, professional autonomy, and teacher development; (5) Uses data and stories to elevate the school's vision and track progress; and (6) Affirms the important role that everyone plays in a community school.

Entering Oakland International High School is like walking into a brighter and more welcoming world. Conversations in as many as 35 languages float through the sunny courtyard, where students come from nearly as many countries. Every student at the school is a newcomer, which means they have been in the United States for fewer than 3 years. Oakland International opened in 2007 as part of a network of public schools that exclusively serve newcomers. Since then, the school has grown into a robust community school with structures, practices, and partnerships that support and engage students--from medical care to support their health and well-being to a student-centered curriculum to support their academic success. This report examines the structures and practices in place at Oakland International High School that allow students, families, educators, and partners to experience a tight-knit and welcoming school community. This exploration of Oakland International's student-centered community school approach identifies six key takeaways for practitioners: (1) Relationships are essential and are supported by structures and practices such as cohorts, advisories, parent teacher home visits, and restorative circles; (2) Experiential learning, college-preparatory classes, and language acquisition are synchronized and mutually reinforcing, especially when bolstered by meaningful assessment; (3) Working with all students--especially newcomers--requires a coherent, culturally responsive approach that incorporates cultural humility, an inquiry mindset, and a willingness to adapt to meet students' needs; (4) Community school supports and partnerships expand the capacity of everyone on campus; (5) Ongoing professional development and dedicated planning time are key to staff learning, effectiveness, and sustainability; and (6) A continuous improvement lens, coupled with a commitment to collaborative problem-solving, leads to meaningful innovation.

Teacher shortages have reentered the national consciousness in a major way, as quarantines and the intense stresses created by the COVID-19 pandemic drained teaching staffs, causing some schools to close temporarily for lack of staff. According to the U.S. Department of Education, all 50 states reported shortages in more than one area for the 2022-23 school year. To handle the shortages, schools have increased class sizes, canceled course offerings, added duties to the responsibilities of existing teachers, and hired underqualified individuals to fill the positions--all of which undermine students' learning. At a time when the nation is necessarily focused on learning recovery for students impacted by the pandemic, resolving shortages should be a national education priority. The moment may be ripe for the set of transformations needed to develop a much stronger education profession in this country. The United States needs a nationwide Marshall Plan for teaching, similar to that enacted after World War II to rebuild Europe, but for rebuilding the teaching profession. A Marshall Plan for teaching should focus the powers of the federal government on supporting recruitment, preparation, support, and retention in teaching in seven key areas: (1) Increase educators' net compensation through tax credits, housing subsidies, and salary; (2) Strengthen recruitment by making teacher preparation debt-free; (3) Support improved preparation by expanding high-retention pathways into teaching; (4) Provide high-quality mentoring for all beginning teachers; (5) Increase investments that enable educators to expand and share expertise; (6) Incentivize the redesign of schools to support teaching and learning; and (7) Rethink school accountability. [This research was supported by Skyline Foundation.]

A rise in the number of school shootings over time has driven increasing attention to school safety. However, school shootings are not the only physical safety threat students may encounter at school. Other types of violence include sexual assault, robbery, physical attack or fights, and threats of physical attack (with or without a weapon). In addition to immediate physical harms, school violence can have long-lasting effects that undermine students' engagement and mental health. It can also increase drug use and risk of suicide. Although there is widespread agreement that all children and youth deserve a safe and healthy school environment, there is significant debate about how best to promote student safety. As states, districts, and schools consider policies and practices that will promote school safety, they can look to existing research to understand more about the effectiveness of proposed strategies and the potential risk of unintended consequences. This report summarizes what is known about the prevalence and effectiveness of strategies to improve student safety in schools. The authors acknowledge that schools are not the only place where young people experience violence, and there is much to be done to ensure safety in all homes and social spaces.

In 2013, California implemented an ambitious school funding reform, the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF), which allocates state funding by the proportion of unduplicated "high-need" students in the district: those from low-income families, English learners, and those in foster care. Using student-level longitudinal data for all California schoolchildren, the study is the first comprehensive investigation of LCFF's impacts on student outcomes, including math and reading achievement, grade repetition, school disciplinary incidents, high school graduation, and college readiness. The analyses show that LCFF-induced funding increases significantly improved academic achievement for every grade and subject assessed, reduced grade repetition, enabled lower suspension rates, and increased the likelihood of students graduating from high school and being college-ready. The impact on student achievement grew with years of exposure to increased funding and with the amount of the funding increase. District investments in instructional inputs, including reduced class size, increased teacher salaries, and teacher retention, were associated with improved student outcomes. [Additional funding from the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) Population Center pilot grant.]

Over the past decade, California has revised its standards for teacher preparation and credentialing and invested in high-retention pathways for entering teaching. As part of its new accreditation system, the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC) administers surveys to program completers who apply for their preliminary teaching credentials. This analysis examines survey responses of almost 60,000 completers from 2016-17 to 2020-21. California has a growing and increasingly diverse pool of teacher preparation graduates, and more than 90% rated their programs positively. Clinical support and access to subject-area preparation are strong predictors of overall feelings of preparedness. Graduates of new preservice residencies and student teaching programs report feeling better prepared than those entering as interns or on emergency-style permits. However, access to higher-rated programs offering more clinical support varies, with half of Black and Native American candidates, as well as most special education candidates, entering without access to student teaching. [Report originally published March 2, 2023, last revised May 12, 2023. For the full report, see ED630345.]

High-quality teacher preparation is a critical building block of an effective and stable teacher workforce. In California, the Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC) currently oversees teacher preparation programs (TPPs) at more than 100 institutions, and these programs graduate more than 10,000 teacher candidates per year. Over the past decade, California has considerably revised its statewide licensing and accreditation systems that set standards for teacher preparation and performance expectations for beginning teachers. These new teaching standards emphasize teachers' abilities to teach to the more ambitious student learning standards the state adopted in 2010. Given policy changes and financial investments, what is the state of teacher preparation in California? Based on survey responses from almost 60,000 completers of TPPs across California from 2016-17 to 2020-21, this report describes changes in the pool of newly credentialed teachers over this period of time, how well prepared completers of TPPs feel in different domains of practice, what kind of learning opportunities they encountered, what aspects of preparation explain how prepared completers feel to enter the profession, and how access to preparation experiences varies among different groups of teachers. This analysis also examines the extent to which perceptions of TPP completers align with survey responses from more than 5,000 cooperating teachers working with student teachers and more than 1,500 employers hiring these new teachers. This report begins by describing the landscape of teacher preparation in California. The authors then explain the data and methods used in this report and outline how the composition of the pool of newly credentialed teachers has changed between 2016-17 and 2020-21. They then detail the findings from the analysis of CTC surveys. These findings are organized into three sections: (1) overall perceptions of preparation effectiveness, (2) differences in perceptions of effectiveness by characteristics of preparation, and (3) differential access to highly rated preparation. The report concludes with policy considerations for California and implications for other states. [For the Research Brief, see ED630346.]

Community schools integrate a range of supports and opportunities for students, families, and the community through a set of partnerships between the education system, the nonprofit sector, and local government agencies. They are an evidence-based strategy for implementing whole child education, which addresses the full scope of children's development across multiple domains--including academic, physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and emotional learning. This research brief examines the district infrastructure that Oakland Unified School District (Oakland Unified) developed to support its community school and whole child education practices. The findings indicate that Oakland Unified provided centralized support for community schools, including coordination of partnerships between schools and county-level agencies; management of partnerships between schools and service providers; training for specialized personnel, such as community school managers and student support teams; professional learning for school staff; and resources for family engagement. The implications highlight promising lessons learned for education leaders looking to build, implement, and sustain high-quality community schools in policy and practice. [For the full report, see ED630211.]

Across the country, many schools have adopted restorative practices in an effort to improve school climate and student outcomes while reducing exclusionary discipline. Restorative practices are designed to proactively build community, improve relationships, and help students amend harm when conflict occurs. Using 6 years of student survey data and California administrative data, this study examines the use of restorative practices in 485 middle schools and their impact on school and student outcomes. Analyses find that exposure to restorative practices improves students' academic achievement and reduces suspension rates and disparities. Schools that increased use of restorative practices saw a decrease in school-wide misbehavior, substance abuse, and student mental health challenges, as well as improved school climate and student achievement. Students of all racial and ethnic backgrounds benefited from restorative practice exposure, with Black and Latino/a students benefiting the most. [For the full report, see ED630386.]

Many schools use exclusionary discipline--such as suspensions and expulsions--to deter students from misbehaving and to protect students from the harms associated with exposure to student misbehavior. Research indicates that, while often implemented with good intentions, exclusionary discipline increases (rather than deters) misbehavior and risks of dropout and juvenile and adult incarceration. Research has also detected racial disparities in how exclusionary discipline is applied. In response, schools have implemented restorative practices, which include proactive practices to inculcate conflict resolution skills and strengthen community bonds (for example, through community-building circles) and responsive practices to resolve conflicts and repair relationships (for example, through mediation and harm-repair circles). Proponents argue that because these practices address root causes of student misbehavior while reducing exclusionary approaches, they have the potential to ameliorate racial disparities while enhancing school climates, academic engagement, and academic performance. A review of extant quantitative research surfaces a critical distinction between restorative programs and restorative practices. Restorative "programs" offer various kinds of training to staff to help them learn to use restorative "practices." Ample evidence indicates that programs often fail to shift school practices in a pervasive way; nonetheless, research has focused almost exclusively on evaluating the impact of the adoption of restorative programs. This study is unique in its focus on the effects of "practices" rather than "programs," the range of student outcomes it examines, and its scale. It examines the effects of restorative practices on academic, disciplinary, behavioral, and health outcomes by combining data regarding the practices in place in 485 middle schools with detailed school attendance and student outcome data for approximately 2 million middle school students. It tracks student exposure to these practices over time and analyzes how exposure to restorative practices affects outcomes at the individual and school levels, controlling for student and school characteristics. [For the Research Brief, see ED630387.]

Across the United States, policymakers, educators, and community members increasingly support community schools as a method of supporting whole child outcomes. Oakland Unified School District (Oakland Unified) in California has made whole child education central to its community schools initiative. Oakland Unified's community schools provide a wide range of services for children and promote practices that enhance child development. This research brief presents the highlights of a study which finds that Oakland Unified intentionally created infrastructure to support its community schools, including: (1) coordination of partnerships between schools and county-level agencies; (2) management of partnerships between schools and service providers; (3) training for specialized personnel, such as community school managers and student support teams; (4) professional learning for school staff; and (5) resources for family engagement. The study illustrates how these district-level supports enabled whole child educational practices within three case study schools. [For the full report, see ED630211.]

Approximately 1.3 million public school students in the United States were identified by their schools or districts as experiencing some form of homelessness in 2019-20. The housing instability faced by these students is associated with a range of acute needs, including transportation, food security, health care, and emotional and mental health. These challenges have negative impacts for student learning and are associated with lower academic achievement and attainment. This brief reviews major federal and state sources of funding for students experiencing homelessness. It finds that federal funding is insufficient to achieve the goals of federal law and is unevenly distributed. Further, only four states provide dedicated funding to support students experiencing homelessness. Recommendations include increases in funding and an entitlement formula for the McKinney-Vento Act, as well as expansion of allowable uses of funds to cover acute needs, and more informative data about resource use. [For the full report, see ED630219.]

Across the United States, policymakers, educators, and community members increasingly support community schools as a method of supporting whole child outcomes. Oakland Unified School District (Oakland Unified) in California has made whole child education central to its community schools initiative. Oakland Unified's community schools provide a wide range of services for children and promote practices that enhance child development. This study finds that Oakland Unified intentionally created infrastructure to support its community schools, including: (1) coordination of partnerships between schools and county-level agencies; (2) management of partnerships between schools and service providers; (3) training for specialized personnel, such as community school managers and student support teams; (4) professional learning for school staff; and (5) resources for family engagement. The study illustrates how these district-level supports enabled whole child educational practices within three case study schools. [For related research briefs, see ED630212 and ED630419.]

The community schools strategy transforms a school into a place where educators, local community members, families, and students work together to strengthen conditions for student learning and healthy development. As partners, they organize in- and out-of-school resources, supports, and opportunities so that young people thrive. A growing number of states are investing in community schools as a strategy to address long-standing social inequities that have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on a review of state American Rescue Plan Act plans, as well as state legislative and state education agency websites and other online resources, this report describes community school initiatives in eight states. The report highlights three potential approaches to state support for community schools: (1) ongoing support through school funding formulas; (2) competitive grant funding; and (3) capacity-building supports (such as certification processes).

In 2021, California committed to providing universal prekindergarten (UPK) for all 4-year-olds and income-eligible 3-year-olds by 2025-26. UPK includes several early learning programs, including transitional kindergarten (TK), the California State Preschool Program (CSPP), Head Start, and expanded learning opportunities to provide full-day early learning and care. TK is the only UPK program that is free and universally available as part of California's public education system. Offered by local education agencies (LEAs), TK currently serves all 4-year-olds who turn 5 between September 2 and December 2 and will expand to all 4-year-olds by 2025-26. The legislature also made new investments in CSPP, a program for income-eligible 3- and 4-year-old children. Funding for CSPP is provided by the state through grants to both LEAs and community-based organizations. This report provides a snapshot of 1,108 LEAs' initial plans for UPK expansion through the analysis of a survey administered by the California Department of Education in August 2022. Key findings provide insights into LEA plans for service delivery models, facilities and transportation, instruction and assessment, workforce development, school leader development, and technical assistance needs. Notably: (1) Universal prekindergarten delivery models; (2) Facilities and transportation; (3) Instruction and assessment; (4) Workforce development; (5) Supporting school leaders; (6) Technical assistance needs; and (7) Large district approaches to UPK. These findings may help policymakers and practitioners identify areas for additional investments and supports during UPK implementation, although the authors note several data limitations and caution that initial UPK plans may have shifted over the course of the 2022-23 school year. As California moves forward with the expansion of universal prekindergarten, more research and data collection will be needed.

There is a growing call to reconsider current approaches to national and state assessment system policies and practices. State and local education agency leaders, educators, community leaders, and advocates have voiced concerns that current state assessment systems--defined primarily by end-of-year multiple-choice tests--are unable to meet contemporary needs for information that supports teaching and learning. More than 20 states are involved in efforts to transform one or more aspects of their assessment systems; however, the process of securing federal assistance and approval to make transitions to substantially improved systems poses numerous challenges. This report synthesizes policy analyses and findings from legal and research analyses, as well as consultations with national, state, and local leaders, to (1) outline the history of federal testing guidance and state responses that have shaped the current context, (2) describe strategies states and districts are pursuing to evolve their assessment programs into high-quality systems that both signal and support better teaching and learning processes for all students, and (3) identify key ways that the federal government could support assessment reforms that enable thoughtful assessment of meaningful skills in ways that also better support teaching and learning. [This report was written in collaboration with Michael DiNapoli, Tara Kini, Tiffany Miller, and Julie Woods. For the Policy Brief, see ED630213.]

The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) invited states to use multiple measures of "higher-order thinking skills and understanding," including "extended-performance tasks," to create state assessment systems that support teaching for deeper learning. However, few states have been able to navigate federal assessment requirements in ways that result in tests with these features that can support high-quality instruction. This brief describes three ways that federal executive action can help states realize their visions for more meaningful assessments: (1) Better align technical expectations for assessment quality with ESSA's intentions; (2) Enable ESSA's Innovative Assessment Demonstration Authority to better support innovation; and (3) Create additional pathways to higher-quality assessments through existing or new funding mechanisms. [This report was written in collaboration with Michael DiNapoli, Tara Kini, Tiffany Miller, and Julie Woods. For the full report, see ED630214.]

Civics education continues to gain national importance, especially in the aftermath of the 2020 presidential election and with recent debates about the teaching of history that addresses the legacy of racism and discrimination in the United States. Despite the increasing interest in strengthening civics education, states continue to differ in their interpretation of what constitutes relevant and high-quality civic engagement among students. This report describes how states are approaching policies to encourage civic engagement. It first provides an overview of state policies and then describes the work in 10 states that are encouraging both the development of civics knowledge and engagement in civic action.

The notion of educating the "whole child" generally includes at least the abilities to (1) develop healthy personal relationships; (2) treat others with respect and dignity; (3) develop the cognitive capacity to solve problems and think creatively; (4) succeed in postsecondary education and the labor market; and (5) be a contributing citizen in a democracy. To nurture these capacities, schools should be healthy, caring spaces that create a climate of support for equitable pathways for children to reach these goals while also creating a challenging and dynamic learning environment. Social and emotional learning (SEL) is critical for the development of these capacities. In 2017, the National Commission on Social, Emotional, and Academic Development convened a 28-member Council of Distinguished Scientists to examine the relevant evidence regarding SEL across a range of disciplines. The council concluded that social and emotional competencies are essential to learning; positive development; and success in school, careers, and life. Its report cited research over the past two decades that has demonstrated the impact of SEL on a variety of child outcomes, including children's well-being, behavior, and academic outcomes. High-quality SEL programming also has been found to have a positive impact on teachers and other staff and leads to improvements in school culture and climate. This report reviews the findings from 12 independent meta-analyses covering hundreds of studies of school-based SEL programs, presents the evidence on the effects of social and emotional learning programs in PreK-12 schools, and considers the next steps for research in SEL. [This study was supported by the Whole Child Policy Table, an LPI project funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Harmony and Inspire at National University, Pure Edge, Inc., and the Wallace Foundation. For the research brief, see ED630375.]

There is a consensus among educators, parents, and policymakers that education should include a focus on supporting essential social and emotional capacities to help children navigate the world successfully. To develop these competencies, many schools adopt social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. The report on which this brief is based reviews the findings from 12 meta-analyses of school-based SEL programs. Across these studies, there is a consistent, reliable effect of tested, evidence-based SEL programs on students' social, emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes in PreK--12th grade, including the development of social and emotional skills, improved academic engagement and performance, growth of positive social behaviors, and lower rates of behavior problems and psychological distress. These findings are applicable across gender, ethnicity and race, income, and other demographic variables. [This study was supported by the Whole Child Policy Table, an LPI project funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Harmony and Inspire at National University, Pure Edge, Inc., and the Wallace Foundation. For the full report, see ED630374.]

Approximately 1.3 million public school students in the United States were identified as experiencing some form of homelessness in 2019-20. Due to their unstable living situations, students experiencing homelessness often have additional educational, social, emotional, and material needs compared to their stably housed peers. Housing instability can result in increased absences from school and can lead to students changing schools midyear. Each school move can disrupt students' education and limit opportunities to learn. The multiple challenges associated with homelessness negatively impact student learning outcomes. Reading, mathematics, and science scores for students experiencing homelessness tend to be lower than those of their peers, including those from economically disadvantaged but residentially stable families. While there is a need to focus attention on students experiencing homelessness, school districts may face barriers supporting them. These barriers include unstable funding or funding that is inadequate to meet student needs, and restrictions on the allowable uses of federal funds, which limits district ability to support noneducational expenses, such as for emergency housing. In addition, prior research has found that funding may help districts identify students experiencing homelessness, and without sufficient funding, fewer students are able to be identified as needing support, leading to inadequate services. The purpose of the report is to examine the federal and state funding sources directed to schools to support students experiencing homelessness. [For the research brief, see ED630220.]

Most states in the United States operate their public preschool programs in a mixed delivery system that serves children in local education agencies (LEAs) as well as non-LEA settings, such as Head Start agencies, child care centers, private schools, and family child care homes. To inform state preschool administrators and policymakers as they refine their mixed delivery systems, this report describes the mixed delivery systems of five states that have taken different approaches to supporting providers across settings. The five states discussed in this report include: (1) Alabama; (2) Michigan; (3) New Jersey; (4) New York; and (5) West Virginia. This report answers the following questions: (1) What is the landscape of mixed delivery in select states' preschool programs? (2) How are state preschool contracts awarded, and what supports are provided to non-LEAs to participate? and (3) What are quality requirements, and who monitors and is ultimately responsible for program quality?

This report summarizes teacher workforce challenges and recent initiatives in Texas that are shaping the state of the educator workforce in important ways. Ongoing teacher shortages have led to the creation of a wide range of pathways into the profession, featuring varying types and amounts of training. A growing body of research demonstrates that these differences in pathways are associated with meaningful differences in teachers' knowledge, skills, and effectiveness, as well as the rates at which they enter and leave the profession. These differences have implications for student learning, school management, and equity, since the districts that have the most difficulty hiring fully prepared teachers are those that serve the most students of color and students from low-income families. This report reviews the emerging research; describes the substantial efforts Texas leaders and institutions are making to address concerns about workforce preparation and stability; and provides additional actionable, research-based policy recommendations. [Funding for this report was provided by the Charles Butt Foundation. For the Research Brief, see ED630217.]

Systemic challenges for the Texas teacher workforce result from a large yearly demand for new teachers, exacerbated by high and climbing teacher attrition rates. As a result of these challenges, a large majority of new teachers are now hired before they complete preparation. Assigned disproportionately to students from low-income families and students of color, these less-prepared teachers are demonstrably less effective and less likely to stay than fully prepared teachers, stimulating further shortages. This study examines these conditions; describes the substantial work underway in Texas to address teacher shortages and stabilize the teacher workforce; and synthesizes evidence about policy interventions that can help address the key factors influencing workforce stability. These include investing in high-quality preparation models; reducing financial barriers to entry for teacher candidates; increasing teacher compensation; supporting improvements to teacher induction and working conditions; and improving state educator workforce data. [Funding for this report was provided by the Charles Butt Foundation. For the full report, see ED630218.]

This brief describes the components found in magnet schools that are both racially diverse and educationally effective. It also outlines four evidence-based policy recommendations that can inform federal, state, and local efforts to help design, implement, and sustain effective magnet schools that foster integrated learning and positive student outcomes. These include: (1) Reinstating federal guidance to states and localities about evidence-based approaches to support school diversity; (2) Expanding federal investments in magnet schools and using them to leverage school diversity and student success; (3) Expanding strategic state, regional, and local investments in magnet schools in ways that support school diversity; and (4) Supporting school-level strategies that promote both integration and student success. This brief is based upon and updates an earlier report (ED614373), which can be found online at https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/advancing-integration-equity-magnet-schools-report.

This brief summarizes a study of five school districts that have been recognized for their efforts to provide high-quality services to students experiencing homelessness. The districts worked hard to identify students experiencing homelessness and supplemented modest federal funds with private funding, district funding, community-based resources, and other school services to provide transportation, essential items such as food and clothing, health services, academic supports, and housing supports, wherever possible. Districts identified inadequate, unreliable, and restrictive funding streams as particular challenges that limited their efforts. This brief outlines federal, state, and local policy changes to address these obstacles and ensure that students have access to a web of school- and district-based supports. The report [ED626558] on which this brief is based can be found at https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/ supporting-students-homelessness-report.

Admission professionals have come to recognize the potential of widening the admission criteria beyond standard academic measures-- such as high school transcripts, grade point average, and summative scores on college entrance exams--to understand student contexts, mindsets, and "college-ready" competencies, such as higher-order thinking skills, effective communication, productive collaboration, and intellectual curiosity. To develop holistic review processes, admission professionals are changing the ways they structure applications for undergraduate admissions. This study examines how the Stephen M. Ross School of Business (Ross School) at the University of Michigan requests, collects, and reviews portfolios of student work along with traditional application materials. The first section presents the rationale for the new holistic review process, the second shares insights it provides the Ross School, and the third details how admission professionals at the Ross School built it. The case illuminates the use of student-generated portfolios as one possible model for other higher education systems seeking to evolve their holistic admission processes.

In 2013, California implemented an ambitious school funding reform, the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF), which allocates state funding by the proportion of unduplicated "high-need" students in the district: those from low-income families, English learners, and those in foster care. The goal of LCFF was to reduce academic achievement gaps between socioeconomically disadvantaged children and their more advantaged counterparts by committing $18 billion in increased state support, allocated based on pupil needs, to be incrementally distributed over 8 years. This reform was distinctive in two ways. First, its multiyear design pre-committed funds, so districts were assured this would not be a temporary, reversible change. This commitment enabled districts to plan long-term, transformative initiatives rather than one-off expenditures. Second, the funding came with minimal restrictions on how schools could use it, giving fiscal sovereignty to districts. This study investigates the impacts of LCFF-induced increases in per-pupil spending on student achievement and behavioral and attainment outcomes. To examine the impact of increased funding on student outcomes, the study links district- and school-level information on school resources and per-pupil spending with longitudinal student data for the full universe of public school students in California who were first observed in kindergarten and followed as they progressed through the K-12 school system. This student-level data included 6.2 million K-12 students in each year studied. The analyses span the school years 1995-96 through 2018-19 across the 10,000 schools and 1,000 districts in the state but focus particular attention on the rollout period of LCFF implementation from 2013 through 2019. [Additional funding from the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) Population Center pilot grant.]

Preparation and professional development can help principals be more effective leaders, but little research has examined what specific approaches are most useful. A study of 462 California principals and the teachers and students in their schools shows that high-quality preservice preparation for principals is associated with stronger teacher retention, and that overall access to professional development--as well as specific learning about instructional leadership--is strongly associated with student achievement gains in both mathematics and English language arts. Underrepresented students of color benefit the most from their principals' opportunities to learn, as do the students of early-career professionals. [This report was written with Anne Podolsky and Stephanie Levin. For the full report, see ED626543.]

This report examines out-of-school suspension data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) from the 2011-12 school year through 2017-18, tracking trends over time and differences in suspension rates of students based on their race and ethnicity, school level, and disability status. Data is presented at national and state levels, and because out-of-school suspensions are concentrated in secondary schools, state-level findings are focused on secondary school students. The factors associated with the use of suspension is also described. The report expands on work the Learning Policy Institute (LPI) previously supported documenting the prevalence and impact of exclusionary discipline. In addition, this report is part of LPI's "Inequitable Opportunity to Learn" series, which uses the CRDC data to understand the extent to which historically underserved students experience inequities in their opportunities to learn--including who teaches them, what they are taught, and how they are treated. The report describes suspension rates and gaps at the national level and state levels. It then describes factors that influence the use of suspensions and disparities in suspension rates and concludes with recommendations for policymakers. [For "Protecting Students' Civil Rights: The Federal Role in School Discipline," see ED626607. For "Inequitable Opportunity to Learn: Student Access to Certified and Experienced Teachers," see ED603398. For "Inequitable Opportunity to Learn: Access to Advanced Mathematics and Science Courses," see ED626612.]

Approximately 1.3 million K-12 public school students across the United States were identified as experiencing homelessness in 2019-20. In all cases, the stress, instability, trauma, and school mobility created by homelessness increase risks to physical, social, and emotional health and to educational engagement and achievement. Districts play an important role in creating environments and coordinating a set of supports that help these students overcome the challenges they face. However, districts face a number of challenges in identifying and serving students experiencing homelessness. The result is under-identification of students and insufficient support provided to students. This study examines how five school districts--Browning Public Schools, Cincinnati Public Schools, Polk County Public Schools, Santa Fe Public Schools, and Spokane Public Schools--work to serve students experiencing homelessness. The authors draw on interview data with homeless program staff, including coordinators, liaisons, and social workers, and budget data to describe how the districts identify and address the needs of students experiencing homelessness, how districts fund and staff their programs, and the challenges that districts confront in meeting the needs of students experiencing homelessness. [For the research brief, see ED626557.]

A growing body of research points to the substantial influence of principals on school conditions and students' learning. But how can principals learn to be good leaders? And are there professional learning strategies that make a difference in principal effectiveness? This study, which is part of a larger project synthesizing the research on principal learning, provides some new insight into these questions. Most studies of principal professional learning have examined the efficacy of particular programs rather than the mix of program features and experiences to which principals have had access. To begin to address this gap in the literature, the authors conducted a study of the relationship between principals' learning opportunities (both preservice preparation and in-service professional development) and key outcomes for the teachers and students in their schools. The authors examined both teacher retention and student achievement gains in English language arts and mathematics. This study offers a new perspective on the efficacy of professional learning by using detailed data from a large, representative sample of principals directly linked to individual-level information from the teachers and students in their schools. [This report was written with Anne Podolsky and Stephanie Levin. For the research brief, see ED626544.]

The negative societal or school-delivered messages that students can receive in relation to their race, ethnicity, gender or gender identity, language, immigration status, disability, age, or any other feature that is associated with social stigma can trigger social identity or stereotype threat. Such threat occurs when people feel they are at risk of being negatively judged in a situation because others associate their identity with undesirable characteristics. When social identity or stereotype threat has been triggered, it induces stress and impedes working memory and focus, leading to impaired performance on tests and other school tasks. In addition, students experiencing these threats often have a heightened assumption that they are uncared for or unwelcomed, causing many to disengage or disidentify with school settings. This report describes how practitioners can build inclusive and affirming school environments with keen attention to identity safety. Identity-safe learning settings aim to mitigate psychological threats to students and their multifaceted identities that could be triggered by negative messages, bullying, or marginalization while helping to nurture a positive sense of efficacy and engagement in learning. In using identity-safe teaching and learning practices, educators promote student achievement and attachments to school by creating a genuine sense of belonging and membership for each student. [This report draws upon research presented in "Educating the Whole Child: Improving School Climate to Support Student Success" (ED606462) and "Design Principles for Schools: Putting the Science of Learning and Development Into Action" (ED614438).]

Many studies confirm that segregated schools for minoritized students produced worsened academic, economic, health, and criminal justice outcomes over the short and long term. By contrast, a substantial body of research establishes that students of all races benefit from attending diverse schools. Despite this evidence, the tools for achieving greater integration have been limited by courts and legislatures in the past few decades, and new approaches to achieve integration are needed. One tool that could be leveraged more fully to create high-quality, integrated educational environments is the use of magnet schools. Well-designed magnet schools can support desegregation and improve student learning, as they create innovative education models and accommodate geographically dispersed families to produce a racially and economically integrated student body. This report presents a policy proposal for a new, federally coordinated approach to magnet school development, conducted under the framework of the Fair Housing Act's mandate to affirmatively further fair housing. This proposal envisions an interagency effort conducted by both the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the U.S. Department of Education, potentially incorporating programs managed by other federal agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service's Low-Income Housing Tax Credit. Social science research has long established the link between housing and K-12 education, and magnet schools represent a natural subject in which to pioneer interagency coordination on these two policy spheres. But federal civil rights policy, especially in recent decades, has often addressed schools and housing in separate silos. This report offers an opportunity to improve and refine several legal and policy tools for desegregating schools and communities.

A growing number of states are launching community school initiatives to ensure family and community engagement, provide enriched and expanded learning, and offer integrated supports for students. Several states are providing technical assistance to support the high-quality implementation of community schools, either through the state education agency or regional and local partners. This brief offers examples from the National Center for Community Schools and from New York, New Mexico, and California showing how technical assistance can build capacity through consultation, training, coaching, and knowledge building. These examples indicate the ways that states are designing technical assistance (TA) systems to support practitioners, the value of providing differentiated TA supports, and the impact of cross-sector partnerships on TA provision.

Young people increasingly need an education that prepares them for our rapidly changing world, enabling them to deeply understand academic content, think critically and solve complex problems, communicate effectively, work collaboratively, and learn how to learn continuously. This "deeper learning"--once offered to the small share of students presumed to be preparing for thinking work-- is now a requirement for all. Yet the journey to deeper learning is a challenging one in the inequitable school system we have inherited in the United States. Compounding the barriers are the many other sources of inequality in our society: dramatic income inequalities, high rates of childhood poverty, and unequal school funding and access to resources of all kinds. This brief describes the key civil rights foundations that have been--and continue to be--essential to paving a path toward possibilities for deeper learning for all: those that secure safe communities, adequate school resources, inclusive environments, well-prepared teachers, and access to quality curriculum. It identifies the evidence-based policies and practices that can ensure that every student has access to a high-quality education focused on meaningful learning. [The brief is written with Eliza Byard. The book on which this brief is based is "The Civil Rights Road to Deeper Learning: Five Essentials for Equity. Multicultural Education Series" (ED622607).]

This study investigates the relationships between preschool quality and children's learning and development from fall to spring of 1 school year through the analysis of child- and program-level data from approximately 70,000 children, ranging in age from 4.5 to 5.5 years old, in 1,700 Quality Counts California (QCC) rated preschool programs, the majority of which were center-based California State Preschool Programs. Learning and development was assessed using children's fall and spring scores on three domains of the Desired Results Developmental Profile, a developmental assessment administered by children's classroom teachers. The authors used multiple regression models to estimate the additional months of learning and development associated with attending a higher-rated program (Tier 4 or Tier 5) above and beyond the months of learning and development projected for a child attending a program rated Tier 3. The relatively small number of programs rated Tiers 1 and 2 were excluded from the analysis. The study suggests that attending a higher-quality-rated program is associated with greater learning and development than attending a lower-quality-rated program. [This report was co-produced by the Berkeley Evaluation and Assessment Research (BEAR) Center at the University of California, Berkeley, with additional support from the California Department of Social Services.]

In California, approximately 47,000 students live in foster care (in 2018-19, around 0.7% of the student population). The reasons for entry into foster care are multiple, complex, and often intertwined with the social and environmental challenges associated with poverty. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated the social and environmental challenges facing students. Because many schools, child welfare agencies, courts, and other businesses and agencies closed for much of the 2019-20 and 2020-21 school years, students in foster care experienced reduced access to in-person education and supports. As the state and schools work to recover from the pandemic, sustained attention will be necessary to ensure these students have access to the services they need to succeed. Using pre-COVID-19 statewide education data and interviews with foster youth services coordinators at county offices of education, this report examines the school conditions and education outcomes for students in foster care; the organizational, logistical, and data challenges to providing coordinated support; and promising practices for future supports.

In California, 2021 legislation expanded transitional kindergarten (TK) to be universal for all 4-year-olds by 2025-26. This expansion will require an additional 11,900 to 15,600 credentialed teachers. Given projected workforce needs and historic investments in teacher preparation, early childhood-focused residencies can help districts strategically build TK teacher workforces. This brief describes two early childhood residency programs--Fresno's Teacher Residency Program and UCLA's IMPACT program--to help inform the development of strong early learning-focused residencies.

In 2021, California made major new investments to advance its commitment to early childhood education through universal preschool. One important investment was extending state funding for transitional kindergarten (TK), previously just for older 4-year-olds, to all 4-year-olds by 2025-26. To ensure the quality of new preschool investments, California must recruit and prepare a sufficient number of qualified teachers in TK and other early childhood programs--a challenge given the rapid expansion of the program. This challenge is even greater during the COVID-19 pandemic, when school districts and early childhood programs are facing significant staffing shortages. This report provides estimates of how many TK teachers California will need through 2025-26 and discusses potential pathways to support a diverse, well-prepared workforce, both in TK and in other early childhood programs. The authors also offer recommendations that state policymakers could follow to stabilize, support, and expand the broader early childhood workforce and to build pathways for racially, linguistically, and culturally diverse educators. [For the Research Brief, see ED622845.]

In 2021, California committed to making transitional kindergarten (TK)--a school-based preschool program initially designed for older 4-year-olds--available for all 4-year-olds by 2025-26. As TK becomes universal, California will need to greatly expand the early learning workforce. This brief provides estimates of how many TK teachers California will need; describes the potential supply pools that could meet this demand; outlines pathways into the profession; and offers recommendations to help stabilize, support, and expand the entire early childhood workforce. [For the full report, see ED622846.]

This technical supplement provides details on the survey methodology and results presented in the report "Developing Effective Principals: What Kind of Learning Matters?" The full report shows that principals' access to high-quality learning opportunities varies across states and by school poverty level. To draw these conclusions, the authors present findings from several related survey efforts through which they were able to compare principals' preparation and professional development experiences. The supplement provides background information on the three survey efforts brought together in the full report. It then discusses the methodology and samples for each survey effort and presents each survey's full results. [For the full report, see ED620192.]

A substantial and growing body of research suggests that strong school leadership is critical for shaping productive learning environments, supporting high-quality teachers and teaching, and influencing student outcomes. But what characteristics contribute to high-quality principal preparation programs and learning experiences? And to what extent do principals have opportunities to participate in these experiences? This report reviews the research literature (2000-2017) to understand the elements of high-quality programs and learning experiences that have been associated with positive outcomes, including principals' sense of preparedness, efficacy, and reported practices, staff perceptions of school climate, teacher retention, and student achievement. It also examines the extent to which principals have opportunities to participate in learning experiences with those elements and the policies that drive both the development of high-quality programs and access to them. Through this review, key findings, research implications, and policy implications related to principal preparation and training emerge. [For the technical supplement, see ED620193.]

Deep poverty is the result of economic and social policies that inhibit the life chances and opportunities of children experiencing material hardship. These barriers to success are compounded when children are discriminated against because of their race, ethnicity, English learner status, religion, dis/ability status, and immigration status. Because their needs are often ignored, children living below the poverty line have been called the "invisible Americans." But, of course, they are not invisible. In too many instances, policymakers, and society at large, have turned a blind eye to how material hardship results in suffering and loss of opportunity for generations of children. The purpose of this report is to make what is "invisible" visible and to suggest three evidence-based strategies that have the capacity to enable educators, in collaboration with the families and the communities they serve, to create learning environments in which students living in deep poverty are supported and successful. While education alone cannot eliminate childhood deep poverty, it is a key component for a comprehensive approach to building an enduring equal-opportunity society.

Social Justice Humanitas Academy in Los Angeles Unified School District is a teacher-commuled community school that advances student learning and development through its mission to support students on their journeys toward self-actualization, social justice, and postsecondary success. To do this, the school centers whole child practices and maintains a community school design that cultivates a supportive and inclusive learning environment, engages students in social and emotional development and student-centered pedagogical strategies, and provides access to integrated systems of supports that enable learning and well-being. [This report was written with Marisa Saunders and Lisa Flook. For the full report, see ED614489.]

Offering competitive teacher compensation is an important part of the solution to recruit and retain a strong and diverse teacher workforce. The maps and associated tables that follow show three teacher wage indicators for the nation and each state: (1) average annual starting salary for public school teachers; (2) average annual starting salary for public school teachers adjusted for cost-of-living differences across states; and (3) average weekly wage competitiveness--how much teachers earn relative to other college-educated workers in that state. Together, these indicators signal the overall wage conditions underlying efforts to attract and retain well-prepared teachers across a state. The final table in the series shows all three indicators for each state. Teacher starting salaries and cost of living vary by district, so within states (with the exception of Hawaii and Washington, DC, which each comprise a single school district), there are districts that will be higher or lower than their state average on these indicators.