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International audience; Due to an increasing demand for environmentally sustainable products, miscanthus and maize stover represent interesting lignocellulosic resources for conversion into biofuels and biomaterials. The overall purpose was to compare miscanthus and maize regarding cell-wall composition and stem anatomy for conversion into bioethanol and polymer composites using partial least squares regressions. For each of the two crops, six contrasted genotypes were cultivated in complete block design, and harvested. Internodes below the main cob for maize, and on the first aboveground internode for miscanthus, were analyzed for biochemistry and anatomy. Their digestibility was predicted using crop-specific near infrared calibrations, and the mechanical properties were evaluated in stem-based composites. On average, the internode cross-section of miscanthus anatomy was characterized by a thick rind (26.2 %) and few but dense pith-bundles (3.5 nb/mm²), while cell-wall constituted 95.2 % of the dry matter with high lignin (243.2 mg/g) and cellulose concentrations (439.7 mg/g). Maize internode-anatomy showed large cross-sections (397.5 mm²), pith with the presence of numerous bundles and non-lignified-pith fractions (22.3 % of the section). Its cellwall biochemistry displayed high concentrations of hemicelluloses, galactose, arabinose, xylose and ferulic acid. Cell-wall, lignin and cellulose concentrations were positively correlated with rind-fraction and pith-bundle-density, which explained strong mechanical properties as shown in miscanthus. Hemicelluloses, galactose, arabinose and ferulic acid concentrations were positively correlated with pith fraction and stem cross-section, revealing high digestibility as shown in maize. This underlines interesting traits for further comparative genetic studies, as maize represents a good model for digestibility and miscanthus for composites.

International audience; Laccase-treated wood fibres were tested for small-scale wet-process manufacture of hardboards. Two laccases of distinct redox potentials, one from Pycnoporus cinnabarinus and one from Myceliophthora thermophila, were compared in terms of their effect on the physical-chemical properties of the treated fibres and hardboards. Wood fibres were produced from Norway spruce (Picea abies) by thermomechanical pulping. The thermomechanical pulp was treated with each laccase in parallel, in the presence or absence of the synthetic laccase mediator 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT). High-performance size-exclusion chromatography revealed that the ethanolic extractable phenolic compounds in the fibres underwent oligomerization upon enzymatic treatment, and that the extent of oligomerization was dependent on the enzyme source and concentration and on the presence or absence of mediator. Lower lignin oligomerization levels led to higher (up to twofold) fibre internal bonding, whereas higher lignin oligomerization levels led to higher fibre hydrophobisation. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed a significant change in surface lignin content. These results demonstrate pre-treatment of spruce fibres with laccase-mediator systems prior to hot processing can improve the mechanical resistance of hardboards while using lower amounts of enzyme.

International audience; Concrete blocks prepared with Portland cement and miscanthus-based aggregates were prepared in order to check if the miscanthus genotype may influence their mechanical properties and to perform an environmental assessment. To produce lightweight, load-bearing concrete blocks using miscanthus stem fragments as aggregates in a single mixing method turned out to be impossible, although trying to optimize the concrete formulation. The results show that genotypes and size of miscanthus fragments controlled the mechanical properties of the final blocks. The lower was the amount of light elements such as leaves and sheath, the better were the mechanical properties of the blocks. When comparing genotypes with the same leaf/stem ratio, it was not possible to see a correlation between the biochemical composition of the stem and the compressive strength of the blocks. A probable explanation is the small variation of biochemical composition between genotypes. Using life cycle analysis tools, miscanthus block were not found to be competitive with conventional alternatives (concrete block and lightweight pumice block) when trying to increase compressive strength above 3 MPa. However, compared to non-load bearing alternatives (light clay brick), blocks integrating miscanthus had a better global environmental performance mainly due to a favorable climate change impact. The present work also points out the risk of decreasing the environmental performances when cultivating the crop on land in competition with food, because of the impacts of indirect consequences of Land Use Change.

BackgroundTermites account for natural biomass utilization systems (NBUS) that evolved the ability to overcome the overall recalcitrance of lignins towards lignocellulose transformation processes. With the objective of applying this capacity to the conversion of technical lignins produced by biorefineries, a higher wood-feeding termite species, Nasutitermes ephratae was fed with a commercial grass soda lignin (Protobind 1000, PB1000). The survival rates of Protobind 1000-fed termites were determined as well as changes in the structure of gut bacterial community and in the chemical composition of this technical lignin. ResultsThe ingestion of PB1000 by worker castes of N. ephratae was revealed by Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analyses directly performed on termites. Survival rates were reduced by two –fold in the termites fed with PB1000 compared to controls. The relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes increased in the gut bacterial community of termites fed with PB1000. The digestion of PB1000 by termites triggered an increase in the syringyl-to-guaiacyl (S/G) ratios. These changes in the chemical composition of PB1000 in the gut of termites was marked by a decrease in relative content of free phenolic monomers.ConclusionThis work showed the abilities of digestive tract of a wood-feeding higher termite species, N. ephratae to metabolize the fraction of the volatile phenolic monomers of PB1000. Overall, our results provide insights into the bacterial lineage candidates for development of bacterial inoculum for pretreatment processes in valorization of technical lignin in biorefinery.

International audience; BackgroundDedicated lignocellulosic feedstock from grass crops for biofuel production is extensively increasing. However, the access to fermentable cell wall sugars by carbohydrate degrading enzymes is impeded by lignins. These complex polymers are made from reactive oxidized monolignols in the cell wall. Little is known about the laccase-mediated oxidation of monolignols in grasses, and inactivation of the monolignol polymerization mechanism might be a strategy to increase the yield of fermentable sugars.ResultsLACCASE5 and LACCASE8 are inactivated in a Brachypodium double mutant. Relative to the wild type, the lignin content of extract-free mature culms is decreased by 20-30% and the saccharification yield is increased by 140%. Release of ferulic acid by mild alkaline hydrolysis is also 2.5-fold higher. Interfascicular fibers are mainly affected while integrity of vascular bundles is not impaired. Interestingly, there is no drastic impact of the double mutation on plant growth.ConclusionThis work shows that two Brachypodium laccases with clearly identified orthologs in crops are involved in lignification of this model plant. Lignification in interfascicular fibers and metaxylem cells is partly uncoupled in Brachypodium. Orthologs of these laccases are promising targets for improving grass feedstock for cellulosic biofuel production.

Background Dedicated lignocellulosic feedstock from grass crops for biofuel production is extensively increasing. However, the access to fermentable cell wall sugars by carbohydrate degrading enzymes is impeded by lignins. These complex polymers are made from reactive oxidized monolignols in the cell wall. Little is known about the laccase-mediated oxidation of monolignols in grasses, and inactivation of the monolignol polymerization mechanism might be a strategy to increase the yield of fermentable sugars. Results LACCASE5 and LACCASE8 are inactivated in a Brachypodium double mutant. Relative to the wild type, the lignin content of extract-free mature culms is decreased by 20–30% and the saccharification yield is increased by 140%. Release of ferulic acid by mild alkaline hydrolysis is also 2.5-fold higher. Interfascicular fibers are mainly affected while integrity of vascular bundles is not impaired. Interestingly, there is no drastic impact of the double mutation on plant growth. Conclusion This work shows that two Brachypodium laccases with clearly identified orthologs in crops are involved in lignification of this model plant. Lignification in interfascicular fibers and metaxylem cells is partly uncoupled in Brachypodium. Orthologs of these laccases are promising targets for improving grass feedstock for cellulosic biofuel production. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13068-019-1525-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Over the years, the organosolv pulping process has proven to be a valuable pretreatment method for various lignocellulosic feedstocks. The objective of this study was to characterize and assess the potential applicability of the organosolv lignin fraction from European larch sawdust, as no research has been conducted in this field so far. Eight different samples were prepared from the European larch sawdust under varied reaction conditions and one milled wood lignin sample as reference. The reaction temperature and sulfuric acid loading were varied between 420 and 460 K and 0.00 and 1.10% (w/w on dry wood basis) H2SO4, respectively. The antiradical potential (via DPPH• method), chemical structure (via ATR-FTIR, 1H NMR, 31P NMR, and thioacidolysis), as well as the molecular weight distribution of the isolated lignins were analyzed and compared. Results from thioacidolysis show a direct correlation between the amount of β-ether bonds broken and pulping process severity. Similarly, both antiradical potential and phenolic hydroxyl group content exhibit a direct relationship to reaction temperature and catalyst loading. On the contrary, the content of aliphatic hydroxyl groups and the average molecular weights both decreased with increasing process severity. The high content of phenolic hydroxyl groups and antioxidative potential of the larch organosolv fractions, especially for the sample isolated at 460 K and 1.10% H2SO4 loading, indicate good applicability as antioxidants as well as feedstocks for further downstream valorization and require additional research in this area.

International audience; This study was devoted to identifying specific biochemical traits that may be addressed in maize breeding programs for improving lignocellulosic composition for biomass utilization in the composites. To this aim, six maize contrasted genotypes were cultivated, harvested and compared in term of their capability to reinforce a low-density polyethylene (LDPE) matrix. Stem biochemical composition and histological pattern of a given internode were evaluated to determine the traits that impacted the mechanical properties of the maize-LDPE composites. Across genotypes, maize stems with higher concentrations of total cell wall residue, lignin, p-coumaric acids and cellulose in conjunction with lower concentrations of ferulic acids and hemicellulose yielded better composite performances. This strong influence of hydroxycinnamic acids is a new finding. Cellulose is found to be the component dominating the mechanical properties of the fragments since the effects of cell wall residue and cellulose are following the same pattern towards composite properties. Contrary to expectations, the correlations between the histological structure of stems and the mechanical properties of the composites prepared with stem fragments is complex and cannot be interpreted in a simple manner. The two most contrasted genotypes in terms of mechanical performances (Cm484 and F2bm3) have the most contrasted biochemical and histological parameters.

We have investigated the impact of the brown-midrib bm5 mutation on lignins and on p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid ester-linked to maize (Zea mays L.) cell walls. Lignified stalks or plant aerial parts (without ears) collected at grain maturity were studied in three genetic backgrounds. Relative to the control, bm5 mutants displayed lower levels of lignins and of p-coumarate esters but increased levels of ferulate esters. Thioacidolysis revealed that bm5 lignins display an increased frequency of free-phenolic guaiacyl units. More importantly, thioacidolysis provided unusual amounts of 1,2,2-trithioethyl ethylguaiacol, a marker compound diagnostic for the incorporation of free ferulic acid into lignins by bis 8-O-4 cross-coupling. As the resulting acetal bonding pattern is a chemically labile branch point introduced in maize lignins by the bm5 mutation, this alteration is prone to facilitate the delignification pretreatments used in the cellulose-to-ethanol process.

Lignocellulose-based biorefineries are considered to play a crucial role in reducing fossil-fuel dependency. As of now, the fractionation is still the most difficult step of the whole process. The objective of this study is to investigate the potential of a base-catalyzed organosolv process as a fractionation technique for European larch sawdust. A solvent system comprising methanol, water, sodium hydroxide as catalyst, and anthraquinone as co-catalyst is tested. The influence of three independent process variables, temperature (443&ndash, 446 K), catalyst loading (20&ndash, 30% w/w), and alcohol-to-water ratio (30&ndash, 70% v/v), is studied. The process conditions were determined using a fractional factorial experiment. One star point (443 K, 30% v/v MeOH, 30% w/w NaOH) resulted in the most promising results, with a cellulose recovery of 89%, delignification efficiency of 91%, pure lignin yield of 82%, residual carbohydrate content of 2.98% w/w, and an ash content of 1.24% w/w. The isolated lignin fractions show promising glass transition temperatures (&ge, 424 K) with high thermal stabilities and preferential O/C and H/C ratios. This, together with high contents of phenolic hydroxyl (&ge, 1.83 mmol/g) and carboxyl groups (&ge, 0.52 mmol/g), indicates a high valorization potential. Additionally, Bjorkman lignin was isolated, and two reference Kraft cooks and a comparison to three acid-catalyzed organosolv fractionations were conducted.

Highlight The first evaluation of lignification in Brachypodium distachyon grain is reported. Moderately down-regulated BdCOMT6 alters grain and stem lignification, which improves stem saccharification without major detrimental effects on grain development and composition., Cereal crop by-products are a promising source of renewable raw material for the production of biofuel from lignocellulose. However, their enzymatic conversion to fermentable sugars is detrimentally affected by lignins. Here the characterization of the Brachypodium Bd5139 mutant provided with a single nucleotide mutation in the caffeic acid O-methyltransferase BdCOMT6 gene is reported. This BdCOMT6-deficient mutant displayed a moderately altered lignification in mature stems. The lignin-related BdCOMT6 gene was also found to be expressed in grains, and the alterations of Bd5139 grain lignins were found to mirror nicely those evidenced in stem lignins. The Bd5139 grains displayed similar size and composition to the control. Complementation experiments carried out by introducing the mutated gene into the AtCOMT1-deficient Arabidopsis mutant demonstrated that the mutated BdCOMT6 protein was still functional. Such a moderate down-regulation of lignin-related COMT enzyme reduced the straw recalcitrance to saccharification, without compromising the vegetative or reproductive development of the plant.

International audience; Grass lignins can contain up to 10% to 15% by weight of p-coumaric esters. This acylation is performed on monolignols under the catalysis of p-coumaroyl-coenzyme A monolignol transferase (PMT). To study the impact of p-coumaroylation on lignification, we first introduced the Brachypodium distachyon Bradi2g36910 (BdPMT1) gene into Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) under the control of the constitutive maize (Zea mays) ubiquitin promoter. The resulting p-coumaroylation was far lower than that of lignins from mature grass stems and had no impact on stem lignin content. By contrast, introducing either the BdPMT1 or the Bradi1g36980 (BdPMT2) gene into Arabidopsis under the control of the Arabidopsis cinnamate-4-hydroxylase promoter boosted the p-coumaroylation of mature stems up to the grass lignin level (8% to 9% by weight), without any impact on plant development. The analysis of purified lignin fractions and the identification of diagnostic products confirmed that p-coumaric acid was associated with lignins. BdPMT1-driven p-coumaroylation was also obtained in the fah1 (deficient for ferulate 5-hydroxylase) and ccr1g (deficient for cinnamoyl-coenzyme A reductase) lines, albeit to a lower extent. Lignins from BdPMT1-expressing ccr1g lines were also found to be feruloylated. In Arabidopsis mature stems, substantial p-coumaroylation of lignins was achieved at the expense of lignin content and induced lignin structural alterations, with an unexpected increase of lignin units with free phenolic groups. This higher frequency of free phenolic groups in Arabidopsis lignins doubled their solubility in alkali at room temperature. These findings suggest that the formation of alkali-leachable lignin domains rich in free phenolic groups is favored when p-coumaroylated monolignols participate in lignification in a grass in a similar manner.

Plant lignocellulosic biomass, mostly composed of cell walls, is one of the largest, mostly untapped, reserves of renewable carbon feedstock on the planet. Energy-rich polysaccharide polymers of plant cell walls can be broken down to produce fermentable sugars used to produce bioethanol. However, the complex structure of plant cell walls, and in particular, the presence of lignin, makes them recalcitrant to enzymatic degradation. Reducing this recalcitrance represents a major technological challenge. Brachypodium distachyon is an excellent model to identify parameters underlying biomass quality of energy grasses. In this work, we identified a mutant line spa1 with a so far undescribed phenotype combining brittleness with increased elasticity of the internodes. Mutant cell walls contain less crystalline cellulose and changes in hemicellulose and lignin quality and quantity. Using a dedicated reactor to follow in real-time, the evolution of straw particle size and sugar release during enzymatic digestion, we show that, despite the increased lignin content, the spa1 mutant has a dramatic reduced recalcitrance to saccharification compared to the WT. These observations demonstrate that other parameters besides lignin content are relevant for the improvement of biomass recalcitrance in energy grasses.

The oxidation of monolignols is a required step for lignin polymerization and deposition in cell walls. In dicots, both peroxidases and laccases are known to participate in this process. Here, we provide evidence that laccases are also involved in the lignification of Brachypodium distachyon, a model plant for temperate grasses. Transcript quantification data as well as in situ and immunolocalization experiments demonstrated that at least two laccases (LACCASE5 and LACCASE6) are present in lignifying tissues. A mutant with a misspliced LACCASE5 messenger RNA was identified in a targeting-induced local lesion in genome mutant collection. This mutant shows 10% decreased Klason lignin content and modification of the syringyl-to-guaiacyl units ratio. The amount of ferulic acid units ester linked to the mutant cell walls is increased by 40% when compared with control plants, while the amount of ferulic acid units ether linked to lignins is decreased. In addition, the mutant shows a higher saccharification efficiency. These results provide clear evidence that laccases are required for B. distachyon lignification and are promising targets to alleviate the recalcitrance of grass lignocelluloses.

The antioxidant properties of grass lignins recovered from an alkaline industrial process and from different ethanol organosolv pretreatment processes were compared using two types of tests: (i) classical radical 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH(•)) scavenging tests in dioxane/water or ethanol and (ii) tests involving multiphasic systems (lipid dispersion in water or cellulose film suspended in ethanol). These multiphasic systems were representative of food and packaging matrices in view of high-value applications. All lignins, in solution or in the film, effectively scavenged radicals. Moreover, they were competitive with a food commercial rosemary extract to protect linoleic acid against oxidation. Whereas the DPPH(•) test in dioxane was not discriminant, differences appeared between lignins when the test was performed in ethanol or with the multiphasic systems. Moreover, radical scavenging activity was preserved in the film even after its immersion in ethanol. Structural analysis of lignins revealed that low-molar-mass phenolics, namely p-hydroxycinnamic acids and lignin depolymerization products, governed lignin antioxidant properties in the multiphasic systems.

The new model plant for temperate grasses, Brachypodium distachyon offers great potential as a tool for functional genomics. We have established a sodium azide-induced mutant collection and a TILLING platform, called "BRACHYTIL", for the inbred line Bd21-3. The TILLING collection consists of DNA isolated from 5530 different families. Phenotypes were reported and organized in a phenotypic tree that is freely available online. The tilling platform was validated by the isolation of mutants for seven genes belonging to multigene families of the lignin biosynthesis pathway. In particular, a large allelic series for BdCOMT6, a caffeic acid O-methyl transferase was identified. Some mutants show lower lignin content when compared to wild-type plants as well as a typical decrease of syringyl units, a hallmark of COMT-deficient plants. The mutation rate was estimated at one mutation per 396 kb, or an average of 680 mutations per line. The collection was also used to assess the Genetically Effective Cell Number that was shown to be at least equal to 4 cells in Brachypodium distachyon. The mutant population and the TILLING platform should greatly facilitate functional genomics approaches in this model organism.

Brachypodium distachyon (Brachypodium) has been proposed as a model for grasses, but there is limited knowledge regarding its lignins and no data on lignin-related mutants. The cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) genes involved in lignification are promising targets to improve the cellulose-to-ethanol conversion process. Down-regulation of CAD often induces a reddish coloration of lignified tissues. Based on this observation, we screened a chemically induced population of Brachypodium mutants (Bd21-3 background) for red culm coloration. We identified two mutants (Bd4179 and Bd7591), with mutations in the BdCAD1 gene. The mature stems of these mutants displayed reduced CAD activity and lower lignin content. Their lignins were enriched in 8-O-4- and 4-O-5-coupled sinapaldehyde units, as well as resistant inter-unit bonds and free phenolic groups. By contrast, there was no increase in coniferaldehyde end groups. Moreover, the amount of sinapic acid ester-linked to cell walls was measured for the first time in a lignin-related CAD grass mutant. Functional complementation of the Bd4179 mutant with the wild-type BdCAD1 allele restored the wild-type phenotype and lignification. Saccharification assays revealed that Bd4179 and Bd7591 lines were more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis than wild-type plants. Here, we have demonstrated that BdCAD1 is involved in lignification of Brachypodium. We have shown that a single nucleotide change in BdCAD1 reduces the lignin level and increases the degree of branching of lignins through incorporation of sinapaldehyde. These changes make saccharification of cells walls pre-treated with alkaline easier without compromising plant growth.

L'article original est publié par The American Society of Plant Biologists; Peroxidases have been shown to be involved in the polymerization of lignin precursors, but it remains unclear whether laccases (EC 1.10.3.2) participate in constitutive lignification. We addressed this issue by studying laccase T-DNA insertion mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. We identified two genes, LAC4 and LAC17, which are strongly expressed in stems. LAC17 was mainly expressed in the interfascicular fibers, whereas LAC4 was expressed in vascular bundles and interfascicular fibers. We produced two double mutants by crossing the LAC17 (lac17) mutant with two LAC4 mutants (lac4-1 and lac4-2). The single and double mutants grew normally in greenhouse conditions. The single mutants had moderately low lignin levels, whereas the stems of lac4-1 lac17 and lac4-2 lac17 mutants had lignin contents that were 20 and 40% lower than those of the control, respectively. These lower lignin levels resulted in higher saccharification yields. Thioacidolysis revealed that disrupting LAC17 principally affected the deposition of G lignin units in the interfascicular fibers and that complementation of lac17 with LAC17 restored a normal lignin profile. This study provides evidence that both LAC4 and LAC17 contribute to the constitutive lignification of Arabidopsis stems and that LAC17 is involved in the deposition of G lignin units in fibers.