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Long-term changes are challenging and debatable research topics because of the estimation method and the social relevance in the climate change scenario. Studies on the long-term changes in the upper atmosphere yield more attention in the last three decades. The formation of the ionosphere and sporadic-E (Es) layer is caused by the solar and lower atmospheric forcing, respectively. Ionosphere and Es-layer can be used as a tracer to estimate the lower atmospheric impact and solar forcing on the upper mesosphere and thermosphere/ionosphere. Using sixty-three and fifty-six years of continuous observations, we investigate the long-term oscillations and residual linear trends, respectively, in the E- and F-region ionosonde measured parameters (i.e. frequencies and height) over Juliusruh, Europe. The Lomb-Scargle periodogram (LSP) estimates long-term oscillations before the trend calculation. We found that the amplitude of the annual oscillation is higher than the 11-year solar cycle variation in the critical frequencies of the daytime E (foE) and Es (foEs) layers. The combination of the LSP estimated periods with their corresponding amplitudes and traditional regression analysis is used to construct a model for E- and F-region ionospheric parameters. The modeled estimates are in good agreement with the observations. The trend calculation is derived by applying a least-squares fit analysis to the residuals, subtracting the model from the observation. In the F-region, foF2, and hmF2 day (nighttime) show negative trends of -4.44±1.78 (-4.30±1.63) kHz/year and -413±47 (-574±75) m/year, respectively. In the E-region, foEs show a negative trend of -2.00±0.61 kHz/year., The 28th IUGG General Assembly (IUGG2023) (Berlin 2023)

Introduction The COVID‐19 vaccine was designed to provide protection against infection by the severe respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). However, the vaccine's efficacy can be compromised in patients with immunodeficiencies or the vaccine‐induced immunoprotection suppressed by other comorbidity treatments, such as chemotherapy or immunotherapy. To enhance the protective role of the COVID‐19 vaccine, we have investigated a combination of the COVID‐19 vaccination with ex vivo enrichment and large‐scale expansion of SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein‐reactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Methods SARS‐CoV‐2‐unexposed donors were vaccinated with two doses of the BNT162b2 SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccine. The peripheral blood mononuclear cells of the vaccinated donors were cell culture‐enriched with T cells reactive to peptides derived from SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein. The enriched cell cultures were large‐scale expanded using the rapid expansion protocol (REP) and the peptide‐reactive T cells were evaluated. Results We show that vaccination with the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein‐based mRNA COVID‐19 vaccine‐induced humoral response against SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein in all tested healthy SARS‐CoV‐2‐unexposed donors. This humoral response was found to correlate with the ability of the donors' PBMCs to become enriched with SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein‐reactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Using an 11‐day REP, the enriched cell cultures were expanded nearly 1000‐fold, and the proportions of the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein‐reactive T cells increased. Conclusion These findings show for the first time that the combination of the COVID‐19 vaccination and ex vivo T cell large‐scale expansion of SARS‐CoV‐2‐reactive T cells could be a powerful tool for developing T cell‐based adoptive cellular immunotherapy of COVID‐19., The COVID‐19 vaccine was designed to provide protection against infection by SARS‐CoV‐2 and COVID‐19. Using a peptide‐based enrichment and rapid expansion protocol, we could generate large numbers of the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein‐reactive T cells from COVID‐19 vaccinated donors.