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While the shortage of qualified administrators is not as serious as the shortage of qualified teachers, some schools continue to fail to attract qualified leaders. Referred to as "hard-to-staff" schools, they are often characterized by high-poverty students, low test scores, high staff turnover, and under qualified teachers. This ERIC Digest reviews the available evidence of a leadership shortage for troubled schools and discusses likely ways that districts can improve the supply of qualified principal candidates. The Digest begins with a discussion of the problem of troubled schools finding qualified administrators. It continues with a discussion of recruiting strategies, including the possibility of financial incentives. One effective strategy is to identify, recruit, and train prospective principals from within the district's teacher corps. Financial incentives as a recruitment strategy may be only a part of the solution. The Digest next discusses how the principalship can be made more satisfying. Noting the inherent stresses in the principalship, some researchers suggest that the burden could be lessened by modifying the position through some sort of distributed leadership. The Digest concludes by discussing candidate qualifications, noting that leadership experience is often considered to be more important than teaching experience. (WFA)

In recent years, the role of the principal has become more critical in the success of schools. School improvement is often tied to principal performance, yet the practice of evaluating principal performance leaves a lot to be desired, according to some educators. This ERIC Digest reviews current principal evaluation practices and describes some emerging issues and alternatives. It begins with a discussion of how principals are typically evaluated, noting that while there is little evidence that principals or their districts see evaluation as a major problem, neither is there any indication that evaluation plays a significant role in school improvement. The Digest next discusses the shortcomings of current practices, stressing that because of the complex nature of the job, principal evaluation is difficult. The Digest then discusses the key elements of effective evaluation, what standards should be used, and what assessment instruments are available. It states that productive evaluation processes are anchored in explicit standards that make expectations clear. Increasingly, policymakers are turning to comprehensive national standards, such as those devised by the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium. Checklists seem to be the most commonly used assessment instrument. Portfolios are also being used to complement checklists. (WFA)

Beginning principals are often overwhelmed by their job. Traditionally, they have been left to fend for themselves. For this reason, schools and districts have been implementing formal induction programs to help the principals during their first year on the job. This digest examines the challenges faced by new administrators and the steps that districts can take to provide a smooth entry into the principalship. It also describes characteristics of good induction programs. New administrators experience many stresses as they adjust to their new position. Among the most stressful are supervising personnel and adjusting to the social climate and culture of the organization. Good induction programs help by providing mentors who in turn provide instructional, administrative, and emotional support. Other suggestions for effective induction programs include the following: help the newcomer stay focused on the big picture; provide a variety of strategies beyond one-on-one mentoring; and help the newcomer adjust to the culture of the district through visits and conferences. The digest concludes by providing some general and specific external resources for supporting district induction programs. (WFA)

Turning around a low-performing school is a complex process in which cause-effect relationships are difficult to isolate. But recent interest in helping low-performing schools--spurred on by the reforms mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act--has generated some useful research and thoughtful analysis. This digest explores some of the key insights from that literature. The digest first discusses how low-performing schools are defined: recently by failure to achieve state-mandated accountability targets, particularly test scores. Next it discusses why schools perform poorly, focusing on three prominent matters: demographics, insufficient resources, and ineffective school practices. The next section of the digest discuses sanctions and their effects on low-performing schools. This is followed by discussion of how external assistance, from the state or district, can help low-performing schools, noting three promising practices: (1) providing technical assistance; (2) aligning policies and practices with academic goals; and (3) allocating resources to support achievement. Finally the Digest discusses the principal's role in turning around a school's overall performance. (Contains 12 references.) (WFA)

In the current climate of accountability, the responsibilities of principals have increased. The new role of principals requires new forms of training, and standards-based reform is generating major changes in principal-preparation programs. This digest examines some of those changes. First, it looks at the effectiveness of principal-preparation programs. There is a general perception that most programs are ineffective, but there is not enough research to support or abrogate such perceptions. Next, the digest explains how the knowledge base of principal preparation is changing. Academic theory and field experience, while both important, are being redefined to fit the new standards. Next, the digest discusses how leadership programs can improve the quality of principal candidates. Mentoring, aspiring principal academies, and formal nomination by principals and superintendents are some of the strategies being used. The digest next discusses the need for continuing inservice education for principals and advanced certification that will lead to the development of principals and elevate the status of the profession. Finally, the digest discusses ways that states and districts can support leadership development. States hold considerable influence through licensure and accreditation requirements, and districts can apply leverage through collaboration with university programs. (Contains 13 references.) (WFA)

This information analysis discusses the changing role of the principal in light of the growth of standards-based accountability during the decade of the 1990s and into the 21st century. The paper begins with an overview of the expectations of school leaders and the changes in school leadership. This is followed by definitions of school leadership that include professional standards, core practices that seem consistent with the standards, the various roles the principal plays, and some of the common challenges the principal faces in meeting expectations. The next section discusses the dominance of instructional leadership over the past several decades; many educators believe that student learning should be at the center of the principal's role. The remainder of the paper addresses the role of the principal in light of the current reform movement. Topics include the principal as leader in implementing school reform; leadership styles, particularly distributed, or collaborative, leadership; and the principal as moral leader and role model for the school community. (Contains 13 Web sources and 35 references.) (WFA)

School-reform efforts in recent years have stressed, and expanded, the leadership role of the principal. But in the view of many analysts, the task of transforming a school is too complex for one person to accomplish alone. Consequently, a new model of leadership is developing: distributed leadership. This Research Roundup summarizes five documents that discuss different facets of the distributed leadership model. (1) "Investigating School Leadership Practice: A Distributed Perspective" (James P. Spillane, Richard Halverson, and John B. Diamond) provides a coherent theoretical foundation for a distributed view of leadership. (2) "Building a New Structure for School Leadership" (Richard F. Elmore) links distributed leadership to the school's fundamental task of helping students learn. (3) "Co-Principals: A Double Dose of Leadership" (Michael Chirichello) explains how one district has successfully established co-principalships in its elementary schools. (4) "The Bridgeport Story: What Urban School Districts Need to Know About School Leadership Teams" (The Education Alliance) shares a framework and some practical tools for formalizing distributed leadership. (5) "The Bay Area School Reform Collaborative: Building the Capacity to Lead" (Michael Aaron Copland) describes how one school-reform network has succeeded in creating a broader base of leadership in its schools. (WFA)

Standards-based reform and the demand for accountability and higher student achievement over the past decade have created challenges for school boards. Should boards continue their historical low-key, hands-off approach to student learning? Or should they take on a leadership role by capitalizing on their traditional responsibility as local policymakers? This ERIC Digest describes the nature and potential of such policymaking efforts. Based on a review of research, the digest concludes that there is little empirical evidence to show how board policy affects student learning. Much of the literature consists of policy recommendations and opinions. However, the research suggests that boards can be a key part of educational improvement in a number of ways. Boards can support reform by mobilizing public support, providing adequate resources, and hiring qualified superintendents. Board members can establish policy committing themselves to systematic strategic planning based on assessment data. Boards can establish goals that all students will receive instruction from fully certified teachers. Board members can be aware of and begin to act on the provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act. Boards can view coordinating board policy to support student learning as a best practice. (Contains 11 references.) (WFA)

Within the last 5 years, policymakers and practitioners have confronted the challenge of replacing many retiring educational leaders. To address this issue, standards for educators themselves have been proposed, some modeled around those of the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC). Attention is also turning to advanced certification to recognize expert leadership. Educational leadership is also undergoing redefinition as leaders immerse themselves in the "core technology" of teaching and learning, use data to make decisions, and align staff development with student learning needs. Distributed leadership, where school leadership responsibilities are taken on by other school staff members, enhances the school's effectiveness and relieves some of the principal's burdens. Educational leadership development occurs now through formalized mentoring programs. A "curriculum" for leadership is also under development, in which best-practice models are integrated with advanced certification programs. State support can make a difference in leadership preparation by pointing a direction and getting priorities; expanding the candidate pool; enhancing administrator training and professional development; setting licensure, certification, and accreditation requirements; enhancing the conditions of practice; and allocating legal authority. Efforts to improve leadership are complex and multilayered, but they have one overarching theme: Effective leadership is defined by student learning. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

To outsiders, the role of school superintendent has always been a little mystifying. This digest examines how superintendents are responding to their changing environment, what leadership strategies they are using, and whether the superintendency is in a state of crisis. Although fears exist of a dwindling pool of applicants, studies have shown that the average tenure of a superintendent is at least 5 years and that many are largely confident and committed, if sometimes frustrated. Superintendents have to balance instructional, political, and managerial roles, all of which are necessary and sometimes conflicting. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act will change the work of superintendents by making testing an annual event, widening the gap between accountability and authority, heightening the superintendent's instructional role, and affecting their relationship with the school board of education. Superintendents can act as instructional leaders by focusing professional development on instructional issues and basing principal evaluation on instructional improvement. The superintendent's role can be strengthened by having universities revise leadership preparation programs to provide district leaders with practical knowledge and skills, having school boards work with superintendents to clarify expectations for performance and evaluation, and having policymakers explore ways to balance the accountability-authority equation. (Contains 12 references.) (RT)

Although instructional leadership is acknowledged to be a critical skill in educational administration, few principals and superintendents have had in-depth training for that role, especially in a standards-based environment. Current definitions of instructional leadership include much deeper involvement in the "core technology" of teaching and learning, carry more sophisticated views of professional development, and emphasize the use of data to make decisions, in comparison to the definitions of the 1980s. Leadership is also distributed across the school community, with principals, superintendents, teachers, and policymakers having complementary responsibilities. Leadership preparation programs include cohort programs, case studies, problem-based learning, and internships. School districts can build instructional leadership by expecting all employees to be both teachers and learners. A key strategy in New York City's District Two is the "WalkThrough" program. It begins with a meeting to review goals and objectives, analyze test data (including discussions of individual children), and discuss teacher performance. The meeting is followed by a visit to every classroom, which involves interaction with teachers and students, and concludes with an evaluation meeting. The WalkThroughs are both supervisory, underscoring the principal's accountability, and supportive, providing the occasion for dialogue and coaching. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

This article discusses some of the various school-reform strategies that have been implemented since the publication of A Nation at Risk. It opens with an examination of standards-based accountability and some of the concerns and objections surrounding this movement. It asks whether standards are achieving their purpose, looks at the role of state policymakers and school leaders, and encourages leaders to be the champion for standards by focusing on developing capacity, by helping teachers connect standards with the goals and commitments they already have, by using data to focus reform, and by enlisting district-level support. The article then turns to comprehensive school reform and encourages districts that are considering this reform to count the cost, come together, learn about available programs, and make a commitment. Shared decision-making (SDM) is the next strategy that is addressed. Critics complain that SDM adds complexity and ambiguity to the principal's role, diverts teachers' attention from classroom issues, and still leaves school boards accountable. Supporters claim that SDM improves the quality of decisions, strengthens staff morale, and increases school effectiveness. The last strategy examined is market strategies, which encompass school choice, parental decisions, and charter schools. No matter which strategy is chosen, stakeholders must communicate and provide staff development. (Contains 38 references.) (RJM)

This "Research Roundup" focuses on how schools can benefit when educational leaders use data to challenge their intuition and assumptions in their decision-making. In "Building an Automated Student Record System: A Step-by-Step Guide for Local and State Education Agencies," Barbara S. Clements provides administrators with a quick but comprehensive introduction to the subject, outlining 12 steps, from setting goals to reporting the data. "Data-Driven Decision-Making," by the Education Commission of the States, is an issue brief aimed at helping educators come to grips with the challenges of the new ESEA accountability requirements. "Using Data to Improve Schools," by the American Association of School Administrators, outlines a process whereby good information is used well, leading to smarter decisions, defusing the emotion in controversial issues, and providing fuel for meaningful dialogue within the educational community. Thomas P. Jandris offers principals a primer on making assessment a part of their school's culture in "Data-Based Decision-Making: Essentials for Principals." Edie L. Holcomb argues, in "Getting Excited About Data: How to Combine People, Passion, and Proof," that although data analysis inevitably revolves around numbers, which many people regard as cold, abstract, or even dehumanizing, human hopes, fears, and passions are close beneath the surface. (RT)

The definition of the role of school principal is currently undergoing transformation in light of modern school issues and a shortage of qualified candidates. In "A Century's Quest to Understand School Leadership," Kenneth Leithwood and Daniel Duke conclude that recent thinking has focused on six forms of leadership: instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, and contingent. In "Leadership for Student Learning: Reinventing the Principalship," the Institute for Education Leadership tells why many individuals with administrative credentials choose not to pursue jobs and suggests some solutions. In "Leading Learning Communities: Standards for What Principals Should Know and Be Able To Do," the National Association of Elementary School Principals proposes six standards to provide a professional development agenda for practicing principals. In "Leadership in Education: Five Commonalities," Mark Goldberg distills five common traits from interviews with educational leaders. In "Trying to Stay Ahead of the Game: Superintendents and Principals Talk about School Leadership," Steve Farkas and others provide clues on how principals feel about their jobs. (RT)

Policymakers and educators are taking a new look at incentives as they work to improve accountability systems. This ERIC Digest examines the role of rewards and sanctions in school reform and identifies key issues in implementing incentive systems. The new accountability is based on five components: carefully designed standards, assessments aligned to these standards, incentives, publicly reported assessment results, and professional development to enhance practitioner skills. Incentives provide the motivational fuel for change. Reward alternatives include competency-based pay and pay for performance. States typically offer rewards to schools rather than individual teachers. Sanctions applied to low-performance schools include replacing the existing management team with state appointees, or reconstituting the schools by transferring practitioners or requiring them to reapply for their positions. At present, no conclusive data show that these sanctions produce any positive motivation toward change. Teachers seem to be motivated more by the small and unmeasurable signs of individual student progress than by monetary rewards. Done well, incentives can play a useful supporting role; done carelessly, they can create dissension among teachers when schools are encouraging them to collaborate. (Contains 11 references.) (RT)

Educators use informal theories and assumptions to guide their actions, yet often fail to evaluate these beliefs. This digest examines the nature and purpose of educational-indicator systems and discusses the design of report cards by which schools can inform the public of their performance. An indicator is any statistic that casts light on the conditions and performance of schools, some of which are teacher turnover, student mobility, and financial resources. Indicators play a central role in accountability systems by focusing attention on results, especially the school's performance on standards-driven assessments. Although indicators hold out the promise of improved decision-making, they can also be abused. Indiscriminate data collection, data misinterpretation, and overreliance on data can wreak havoc on a school's accountability system. Designing effective school report cards poses a considerable challenge because parents and taxpayers may have different ideas than do policymakers. The Annenberg Institute for School Reform has designed a six-part "inquiry cycle" that uses indicators effectively. Tracking and reporting selected indicators will satisfy minimum requirements of accountability, but significant improvement will come only when the data are used systematically and intelligently. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

Educators use informal theories and assumptions to guide their actions, yet often fail to evaluate these beliefs. This ERIC Digest in Spanish examines the nature and purpose of educational-indicator systems and discusses the design of report cards by which schools can inform the public of their performance. An indicator is any statistic that casts light on the conditions and performance of schools, some of which are teacher turnover, student mobility, and financial resources. Indicators play a central role in accountability systems by focusing attention on results, especially the school's performance on standards-driven assessments. Although indicators hold out the promise of improved decision-making, they can also be abused. Indiscriminate data collection, data misinterpretation, and overreliance on data can wreak havoc on a school's accountability system. Designing effective school report cards poses a considerable challenge because parents and taxpayers may have different ideas than do policymakers. The Annenberg Institute for School Reform has designed a six-part "inquiry cycle" that uses indicators effectively. Tracking and reporting selected indicators will satisfy minimum requirements of accountability, but significant improvement will come only when the data are used systematically and intelligently. (Contains 13 references.) (RT)

All 50 states are moving toward accountability systems that involve setting clear standards of learning, assessing student progress on those standards, and providing a variety of incentives and sanctions for performance. Many educators remain profoundly ambivalent; however, they recognize opportunities for positive change but worry that a narrow definition of standards and assessment will restrict their efforts to provide for the individual needs of students. Also, while parents they continue to express strong support for standards-based accountability, they fear that standardized tests will be the sole determinant of their children's future. Policymakers in some states have recently begun to put the brakes on plans for linking high school graduation to test results. The standards movement may be entering a stage in which its very success is causing hesitation. This issue captures some of the ferment by surveying a variety of current perspectives on standards: "Education Week" takes a comprehensive look at the standards movement in its latest annual report, "Quality Counts 2001." Chester E. Finn and Michael J. Petrilli update the Thomas Fordham Foundation's periodic evaluation of state efforts to implement standards. The Learning First Alliance calls for "mid-course corrections" in standards-based accountability. Scott Thompson draws a line between the "authentic standards" movement and its "evil twin" test-based reform. Finally, Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning describes how teachers are implementing standards in the classroom. (DFR)

This document explores issues of leadership for accountability and reviews five resources on the subject. These include: (1) "Accountability by Carrots and Sticks: Will Incentives and Sanctions Motivate Students, Teachers, and Administrators for Peak Performance?" (Larry Lashway); (2) "Organizing Schools for Teacher Learning" (Judith Warren Little); (3) "Making Standards Stick: A Follow-Up Look at Washington State's School Improvement Efforts in 1999-2000" (Robin Lake and others); (4) "Leadership for School Improvement" (Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning); and (5) "The Lifeworld of Leadership: Creating Culture, Community, and Personal Meaning in Our Schools" (Thomas J. Sergiovanni). (RT)

This digest in Spanish describes the key features of current accountability systems and explores their implications for administrators. It discusses various aspects of accountability systems, such as rigorous content standards and the alignment of professional development with standards and test results, and how these elements work together to improve student learning. The text outlines ways that accountability systems motivate teachers, and describes the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation systems. The digest emphasizes the need for school leaders to understand what motivates their staff when assembling an accountability system. Various systems are in operation in states and school districts, and the paper discusses the effectiveness of new accountability systems throughout the U.S. Although 48 states now test their students, only 19 publicly rate school performance, and just 14 provide monetary incentives for good performance. Accountability systems can also create some troubling issues, such as teachers narrowing their efforts to focus on test preparation. Ways in which schools can meet new accountability expectations include monitoring vital indicators, aligning professional development with improvement goals, and developing a positive mind set. The digest closes with a list of what school leaders can do, such as promoting a safe and orderly school environment, to ensure that an accountability plan will succeed. (Contains 12 references.) (RJM)

This bulletin contains synopses of five works that consider the issue of school size from a variety of viewpoints. (1) "School Size' School Climate, and School Performance" (Kathleen Cotton) reviews the research evidence on school size, finding strong support for the advantages of small schools. (2) "Is Bigger Really Better?" (Kenneth Stevenson and Leonard Pellicer) examines a number of studies and concludes that neither small nor large schools have a decisive advantage. (3) "Taking Stock: The Movement to Create Mini-Schools, Schools-Within-Schools, and Separate Small Schools" (Mary Anne Raywid) discusses different ways that small schools can be nurtured within large buildings. (4) "The Big Benefits of Smallness" (Deborah W. Meier), drawing from the author's experience as a small-school pioneer, describes the many benefits of small schools. (5) "Smaller Is Better" (Veronica Anderson) tells how one elementary school in Chicago has transformed itself from a large school to a cluster of small schools in the same building. (RIB)

This issue reviews publications that provide a starting point for principals looking for a way through the accountability maze. Each publication views accountability differently, but collectively these readings argue that even in an era of state-mandated assessment, principals can pursue proactive strategies that serve students' needs. James A. Watts, Gale F. Gaines, and Joseph D. Creech's "Getting Results: A Fresh Look at School Accountability" describes the nature of comprehensive accountability systems. Charles Abelmann and Richard Elmore's "When Accountability Knocks, Will Anyone Answer?" shows that schools have internal accountability systems that influence the success of externally imposed standards. Karen Levesque, Denise Bradby, Kristi Rossi, and Peter Teitelbaum's "At Your Fingertips: Using Everyday Data to Improve Schools" provides school leaders with a guide to using school data to help chart the improvement process. Mack McCary, Joe Peel, and Wendy McColskey's "Using Accountability as a Lever for Changing the Culture of Schools: Examining District Strategies" describes the efforts of one district to develop a "culture of accountability" throughout the system. Robin J. Lake, Paul T. Hill, Lauren O'Toole, and Mary Beth Celio's "Making Standards Work: Active Voices, Focused Learning" examines the strategies used by Washington State schools to respond to state assessments. (DFR)

This issue reviews five publications that provide a sampling of current perspectives on the preparation of school leaders. Joseph Murphy's "Preparation for the School Principalship: The United States' Story" traces the history of leadership preparation programs in the United States from the 19th century to the present. David L. Clark's "Searching for Authentic Leadership in University Graduate Programs and with Public School Colleagues" outlines the current shortcomings of preparation programs and sketches some recommendations for reform. Willis and Carol Furtwengler's "Performance Assessment in the Preparation of Education Administrators: A Journey" describes a performance assessment system for the development of school leaders. Philip Hallinger's "Problem-Based Learning: Resources for Urban School Leadership Training" provides a resource manual for the use of problem-based learning in leadership training. Arthur Danzig's "Leadership Stories: What Novices Learn by Crafting the Stories of Experienced Administrators" explores the value of practitioners' stories in learning to lead. (DFR)

This newsletter reviews five reports that address the implications of standards for administrators. These texts include "Designing and Implementing Standards-Based Accountability System" (Education Commission of the States), which describes some of the policy implications of standards-driven accountability; "Why Principals Fail: Are National Professional Standards Valid Measures of Principal Performance?" (J. Douglas Coutts), which reports on the relationship between standards and on-the-job success for principals; "Skills for Successful 21st Century School Leaders: Standards for Peak Performers" (J. R. Hoyle, F. W. English, and B. E. Steffy), which provides a professional-development curriculum based on a synthesis of recent leadership standards; "Case Studies for School Leaders: Implementing the ISLLC Standards" (W. L. Sharp, J. K. Walter, and H. M. Sharp), which offers a series of case studies keyed to the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards; and the Web site of the Council of Chief State School Officers, which offers the full text of the ISLLC report on performance standards for school leaders. Since ISLLC is a broadly based coalition, its standards represent a powerful and influential consensus on leadership. (RJM)

Ways in which teachers and principals respond to changing leadership roles and some practical steps that principals can take to support leadership are discussed in this article review. It focuses on five papers that explore educators' roles, offering advice on how to respond to changing expectations. "When is New: A Plan of Action" (A. W. Hart) examines ways that teacher leadership changes the principal's traditional duties. "Awakening the Sleeping Giant: Leadership Development for Teachers" (M. Katzenmeyer and G. Moller) suggests that teacher leadership can play a significant transformative part in K-12 schools, and that such teacher leaders are classroom-centered leaders who concentrate on teaching and learning rather than on organizational "nuts and bolts.""Effects of Teacher Leadership on Their Teaching Practice" (M. N. Ovando) surveyed 25 teachers who revealed that leadership roles demanded time that used to be devoted to planning periods and other free moments. "Supports and Barriers to Teacher Leadership: Reports of Teacher Leaders" (L. F. Zinn) presents research showing that the new leadership role can be difficult for teachers to master and that support is crucial to the process, such as a strong network of colleagues and administrator support. "Teacher Leaders and Their Principals: Exploring the Development of New Working Relationships" (M. A. Smylie and J. Conyers) states that once teachers assume a leadership role, they must redefine their relationship with the principal in order to reduce any role ambiguity. (RJM)

Principals have two reasons to wonder about the whole concept of leadership. First, they are responsible for identifying leadership in others; and second, they must be analytical and reflective about their own capabilities. Consequently, there is always demand for valid and reliable measurement of leadership qualities. This issue reviews recent publications that address issues involved in measuring and evaluating leadership. The publications are: (1) "Measurements of Personality and Leadership: Some Relationships" (Frederick C. Wendel, Allan H. Schmidt, and James Loch); (2) "Assessing Leadership and Measuring Its Effects" (Richard L. Hughes, Robert C. Ginnett, and Gordon J. Curphy); (4) "Performance Appraisal and Selection of School Leaders: Selection Processes and Measurement Issues" (Kenneth Leithwood, Paul T. Begley, and J. Bradley Cousins); and (5) "Using Multi-Raters in Superintendent Evaluation" (Richard P. Santeusanio). (LMI)

In shared decision making (SDM), principals collaborate with teachers and sometimes parents to take actions aimed at improving instruction and school climate. While research on SDM outcomes is still inconclusive, the literature shows that SDM brings both benefits and problems, and that the principal is a key figure. This brief offers a sampling of recent research on shared decision making: (1) "Shared Decision-Making" (Lynn Balster Liontos and Larry Lashway); (2) "Principals' Skills and Knowledge for Shared Decision-Making" (Kent Peterson, Kubilay Gok, and Valli D. Warren); (3) "Influences of Shared Decision-Making on School and Classroom Activity: Conversations with Five Teachers" (Gary A. Griffin); (4) "The Principal as Mini-Superintendent under Chicago School Reform" (Bruce R. McPherson and Robert L. Crowson); and (5) "The Fire Is Back! Principals Sharing School Governance" (Jo Blase and Joseph Blase). (LMI)

Principals today are expected to maximize their schools' performances with limited resources while also adopting educational innovations. This synopsis reviews five recent publications that offer some important insights about the nature of principals' leadership strategies: (1) "Leadership Styles and Strategies" (Larry Lashway); (2) "Facilitative Leadership: How Principals Lead without Dominating" (David T. Conley and Paul Goldman); (3) "Symbols and Symbolic Activity" (Terrence E. Deal); (4) "The Leadership Paradox: Balancing Logic and Artistry in Schools" (Terrence E. Deal and Kent D. Peterson); and (5) "Forceful Leadership and Enabling Leadership: You Can Do Both" (Robert E. Kaplan). Lashway reviews the recent literature on leadership styles and strategies, and concludes that effective leadership is built on three basic strategies: hierarchical, transformational, and facilitative. Conley and Goldman describe the rationale behind facilitative leadership, offering a candid discussion of its advantages and disadvantages. Deal discusses strategies that emphasize the leader's role as a manager of meaning, suggesting ways in which to build a school culture that will invite loyalty and commitment. Deal and Peterson offer a prescription for reconciling and integrating the multiple demands of technical leadership and symbolic leadership. Kaplan discusses "forceful" and "enabling" strategies, describing the problems that result when leaders fail to keep a balance. (LMI)

"Vision" is one of the most frequently used buzzwords in the education literature of the 1990s. This digest in Spanish presents an overview of visionary leadership, which many education experts consider to be a make-or-break task for the school leader. It discusses various definitions of vision, the significance of vision for organizations, the ways in which visions develop, the top-down and bottom-up nature of vision, and the ways in which leaders facilitate vision. An organizational vision creates a more unified school culture and serves as a way to reconnect schools to an increasingly alienated public. Although involving teachers in the formulation of a school's vision is important, the principal clearly plays an important role in initiating and promoting it. Above all, principals must create a climate and a culture for change. (Contains 11 references.) (LMI)

Since the 1980s, shared decision making (SDM) has become a significant part of school-reform efforts. Advocates say that SDM will improve student learning, create teacher satisfaction, and develop new forms of leadership. This digest in Spanish presents an overview of research that investigated whether SDM delivers on these promises. Studies indicate that so far there is little consistent evidence that SDM increases student achievement. Teachers generally report feelings of empowerment and are more likely to support collaborative decisions; however, SDM often creates conflict and difficult negotiations among participants. Principals often experience difficulties in changing their leadership roles and finding a balance between showing support and letting go. These early studies suggest that enthusiasm about SDM should be tempered with realism. (Contains 10 references.) (LMI)

Until very recently, ethical issues were given little attention in administrator-preparation programs. This digest in Spanish outlines the ethical responsibilities of school leaders and the dilemmas that they face. It offers the following suggestions for resolving ethical dilemmas: (1) Leaders should have and be willing to act on a definite sense of ethical standards; (2) leaders should examine dilemmas from different perspectives; (3) leaders can reframe ethical issues; and (4) leaders should have the habit of conscious reflection. Educators can create ethical institutions by developing an ethics committee or a shared school covenant. The virtues that leaders must practice include honesty, courage, and stewardship. The leader's responsibility is complex and multi-dimensional, rooted less in technical expertise than in simple human integrity. (Contains 10 references.) (LMI)

A decade ago, principals were asked to become instructional leaders who exercised firm control by setting goals, maintaining discipline, and evaluating results. Today, they are encouraged to act as facilitative leaders by building teams, creating networks, and "governing from the center." Rapid shifts in administrative philosophy can be frustrating for practitioners, especially if they are seeking the one best way to lead. These seemingly contradictory approaches, however, can be viewed as complementary strategies rather than as competing paradigms. This digest outlines the tenets of three broad leadership strategies--hierarchical, transformational, and facilitative. It offers the following guidelines for choosing leadership strategies: (1) leaders should use strategies flexibly; (2) leaders should balance short-term and long-term needs; (3) strategic choices must serve institutional values; and (4) the same action can serve more than one strategy. (LMI)

This digest describes the key features of current accountability systems and explores their implications for administrators. It discusses various aspects of accountability systems, such as rigorous content standards and the alignment of professional development with standards and test results, and how these elements work together to improve student learning. The text outlines ways that accountability systems motivate teachers, and describes the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation systems. The digest emphasizes the need for school leaders to understand what motivates their staff when assembling an accountability system. Various systems are in operation in states and school districts, and the paper discusses the effectiveness of new accountability systems throughout the U.S. Although 48 states now test their students, only 19 publicly rate school performance, and just 14 provide monetary incentives for good performance. Accountability systems can also create some troubling issues, such as teachers narrowing their efforts to focus on test preparation. Ways in which schools can meet new accountability expectations include monitoring vital indicators, aligning professional development with improvement goals, and developing a positive mind set. The digest closes with a list of what school leaders can do, such as promoting a safe and orderly school environment, to ensure that an accountability plan will succeed. (Contains 12 references.) (RJM)

According to some theorists, schools that dedicate themselves to systematic, collaborative problem-solving can continually develop and implement new ideas -- becoming what is called learning organizations. Ways in which schools accomplish this transformation are discussed. Although many researchers have failed to find schools that actually become learning organizations, some investigators have begun to identify schools in which entire faculties have gained proficiency in new forms of instruction. The research has shown how schools that focused on several models of teaching, using a strong research base that included cooperative learning, concept-attainment, and synectics, were able to elevate staff learning, motivated in part by data that reveal their level of success or failure. Some studies have also pointed to changes in the workplace as a key to successful organizational learning, documenting the importance of schools providing time for teachers to reflect together. But most important is the degree to which principals and superintendents can envision themselves as "learning leaders," thereby allowing learning to become a collaborative, goal-oriented task and their organizations to be viewed as learning communities, for faculty as well as for students. (RJM)

Today there are dozens of instruments that claim to measure leadership capacities. Although every instrument has limitations and must be used carefully, the tests can be used to identify leadership potential. This digest summarizes the reasons for using formal assessments, the attributes measured by such tests, the ways in which leadership potential is measured, and the limits of formal assessment. It is recommended that school district personnel make sure that the test closely matches the demands of the position; determine whether the test satisfies basic statistical criteria such as validity and reliability; and carefully interpret test results. (LMI)

"Vision" is one of the most frequently used buzzwords in the education literature of the 1990s. This digest presents an overview of visionary leadership, which many education experts consider to be a make-or-break task for the school leader. It discusses various definitions of vision, the significance of vision for organizations, the ways in which visions develop, the top-down and bottom-up nature of vision, and the ways in which leaders facilitate vision. An organizational vision creates a more unified school culture and serves as a way to reconnect schools to an increasingly alienated public. Although involving teachers in the formulation of a school's vision is important, the principal clearly plays an important role in initiating and promoting it. Above all, principals must create a climate and a culture for change. (Contains 11 references.) (LMI)

Since the 1980s, shared decision making (SDM) has become a significant part of school-reform efforts. Advocates say that SDM will improve student learning, create teacher satisfaction, and develop new forms of leadership. This digest presents an overview of research that investigated whether SDM delivers on these promises. Studies indicate that so far there is little consistent evidence that SDM increases student achievement. Teachers generally report feelings of empowerment and are more likely to support collaborative decisions; however, SDM often creates conflict and difficult negotiations among participants. Principals often experience difficulties in changing their leadership roles and finding a balance between showing support and letting go. These early studies suggest that enthusiasm about SDM should be tempered with realism. (Contains 10 references.) (LMI)

Until very recently, ethical issues were given little attention in administrator-preparation programs. This digest outlines the ethical responsibilities of school leaders and the dilemmas that they face. It offers the following suggestions for resolving ethical dilemmas: (1) Leaders should have and be willing to act on a definite sense of ethical standards; (2) leaders should examine dilemmas from different perspectives; (3) leaders can reframe ethical issues; and (4) leaders should have the habit of conscious reflection. Educators can create ethical institutions by developing an ethics committee or a shared school covenant. The virtues that leaders must practice include honesty, courage, and stewardship. The leader's responsibility is complex and multi-dimensional, rooted less in technical expertise than in simple human integrity. (Contains 10 references.) (LMI)

Today, prevailing views of leadership suggest that the principal's role should not be to direct others but to create a school culture in which decisions are made collaboratively. Such "facilitative" leadership exercises power through others, not over them. The basic question is whether or not these two leadership styles are mutually exclusive. The development of a school mission is an example of an administrative function that combines both leadership perspectives. Principals work to achieve consensus from stakeholders about the school's vision, but must also intervene with those who hold values inconsistent with commonly shared goals. Thus, formulating a vision is a continuing dialogue, rather than a one-time event. The Digest also describes ways that a facilitative leader creates a positive learning climate, provides teacher feedback, and promotes teacher participation in curriculum and evaluation. In each task, relationships and teacher involvement are key elements. In conclusion, the evolution of facilitative approaches has not eliminated the underlying functions of instructional leadership, but today's principals are being challenged to carry out those functions in ways that are less direct and more collaborative. (LMI)

Influenced by leadership developments in the private sector, educational researchers have increasingly focused their attention on "transformational" models of leadership that emphasize collaboration and empowerment. The facilitative leader's role is to foster the involvement of employees at all different levels. This digest summarizes current research on facilitative leadership. In contrast with traditional leaders whose domination is derived from formal authority and hierarchy, facilitative principals create environments in which teachers can work effectively. However, facilitation occurs within the existing structure, meaning that those accorded legal authority to ratify decisions continue to do so. Facilitative leadership requires that administrators trust and believe that others can and will function independently and successfully. It also requires the ability to utilize multiple frames of reference for understanding different aspects of organizational life. Tensions that accompany facilitative leadership include the blurring of accountability and the need to balance accommodation with an inflexible hierarchical system (for example, external pressure to act on issues). Finally, administrators interested in changing to a facilitative style are advised to start slowly; communicate their intentions clearly; adapt their strategies to individual variations; and avoid becoming preoccupied with formal structures, roles, and procedures. (LMI)