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After World War II, the Cold War generated significant barriers between the East and the West, and this affected all sorts of cooperation, including research and scientific collaboration. However, as the political situation in the Soviet Union started to change in the 1980s under the leadership of Mikael Gorbachev, the environment for international collaboration in many areas gradually improved.

This overview of climate observation, monitoring, and research for the Arctic region outlines the key elements essential to an enhanced understanding of the unprecedented climate change in the region and its global influences. The first recorded observation of sea ice extent around Svalbard date back to the whaling activities around 1600. Over the following 300 years there are periodic and inadequate observations of climate and sea ice from explorers seeking a northern sea route for sailing to Asia or reaching the North Pole. Around 1900 there were few fixed meteorological stations in the circumpolar North. During the Second World War and the following Cold War, the observation network increased significantly due to military interest. Since the 1970s the use of satellites has improved the climate and meteorological observations of Arctic areas, and advancements in marine observations (beneath the sea surface and within oceanic sediments) have contributed to a much improved network of climate and meteorological variables. Climate change in the Arctic and its possible effects within the Arctic and on global climate such as extreme weather and sea level rise were first reported in the ACIA 2005 report. Since then there has been a lot of climate-related assessments based on data from the Arctic and ongoing processes within the Arctic that are linked to global systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can be used as chemical sentinels for the assessment of anthropogenic influences on Arctic environmental change. We present an overview of studies on PCBs in the Arctic and combine these with the findings from ArcRisk—a major European Union-funded project aimed at examining the effects of climate change on the transport of contaminants to and their behaviour of in the Arctic—to provide a case study on the behaviour and impact of PCBs over time in the Arctic. PCBs in the Arctic have shown declining trends in the environment over the last few decades. Atmospheric long-range transport from secondary and primary sources is the major input of PCBs to the Arctic region. Modelling of the atmospheric PCB composition and behaviour showed some increases in environmental concentrations in a warmer Arctic, but the general decline in PCB levels is still the most prominent feature. ‘Within-Arctic’ processing of PCBs will be affected by climate change-related processes such as changing wet deposition. These in turn will influence biological exposure and uptake of PCBs. The pan-Arctic rivers draining large Arctic/sub-Arctic catchments provide a significant source of PCBs to the Arctic Ocean, although changes in hydrology/sediment transport combined with a changing marine environment remain areas of uncertainty with regard to PCB fate. Indirect effects of climate change on human exposure, such as a changing diet will influence and possibly reduce PCB exposure for indigenous peoples. Body burdens of PCBs have declined since the 1980s and are predicted to decline further., Environmental Science and Pollution Research, ISSN:0944-1344, ISSN:1614-7499

A first review on occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is presented. The literature survey conducted here was initiated by the current Assessment of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). This first review on the occurrence and environmental profile of PPCPs in the Arctic identified the presence of 110 related substances in the Arctic environment based on the reports from scientific publications, national and regional assessments and surveys, as well as academic research studies (i.e., PhD theses). PPCP residues were reported in virtually all environmental compartments from coastal seawater to high trophic level biota. For Arctic environments, domestic and municipal wastes as well as sewage are identified as primary release sources. However, the absence of modern waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), even in larger settlements in the Arctic, is resulting in relatively high release rates for selected PPCPs into the receiving Arctic (mainly) aquatic environment. Pharmaceuticals are designed with specific biochemical functions as a part of an integrated therapeutically procedure. This biochemical effect may cause unwanted environmental toxicological effects on non-target organisms when the compound is released into the environment. In the Arctic environments, pharmaceutical residues are released into low to very low ambient temperatures mainly into aqueous environments. Low biodegradability and, thus, prolonged residence time must be expected for the majority of the pharmaceuticals entering the aquatic system. The environmental toxicological consequence of the continuous PPCP release is, thus, expected to be different in the Arctic compared to the temperate regions of the globe. Exposure risks for Arctic human populations due to consumption of contaminated local fish and invertebrates or through exposure to resistant microbial communities cannot be excluded. However, the scientific results reported and summarized here, published in 23 relevant papers and reports (see Table S1 and following references), must still be considered as indication only. Comprehensive environmental studies on the fate, environmental toxicology, and distribution profiles of pharmaceuticals applied in high volumes and released into the Nordic environment under cold Northern climate conditions should be given high priority by national and international authorities.

This article provides a synthesis of the latest observational trends and projections for the future of the Arctic. First, the Arctic is already changing rapidly as a result of climate change. Contemporary warm Arctic temperatures and large sea ice deficits (75% volume loss) demonstrate climate states outside of previous experience. Modeled changes of the Arctic cryosphere demonstrate that even limiting global temperature increases to near 2 °C will leave the Arctic a much different environment by mid-century with less snow and sea ice, melted permafrost, altered ecosystems, and a projected annual mean Arctic temperature increase of +4 °C. Second, even under ambitious emission reduction scenarios, high-latitude land ice melt, including Greenland, are foreseen to continue due to internal lags, leading to accelerating global sea level rise throughout the century. Third, future Arctic changes may in turn impact lower latitudes through tundra greenhouse gas release and shifts in ocean and atmospheric circulation. Arctic-specific radiative and heat storage feedbacks may become an obstacle to achieving a stabilized global climate. In light of these trends, the precautionary principle calls for early adaptation and mitigation actions.

Long–term air monitoring programs are today recognized as a powerful tool for global studies of atmospheric long–range transport processes. Based on the combined efforts from multi–national atmospheric monitoring programs, principles and pathways of long–range contaminant transport into the pristine Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic) have been revealed. The defining factors and mechanisms of the principal atmospheric transport into the Polar Regions for a wide array of contaminants ranging from inorganic and organic contaminants, nutrients to aerosols and particulate matter, have been established and verified based on long–term monitoring data. At present, empirically derived monitoring data is the only way to evaluate the accuracy of the projections and results obtained from modern modeling tools that aim to describe future contamination scenarios in various regions of the world. Although the fundamental importance of continuous atmospheric monitoring for the evaluation of global long–range transport and distribution processes of anthropogenic contaminants is recognized, three major challenges for global monitoring of contaminants remain: (1) A more thorough co–ordination and co–operation between all international monitoring programs with focus in global contaminant transport and fate must be achieved. (2) Strategies for rapid and effective adaptation of programs following the identification of new priority contaminants. (3) Application of appropriate sampling and analytical protocols as well as quality control and quality assurance measures; that must be developed and adopted by all relevant monitoring programs in order to allow effective comparison of measurement results and information between the respective monitoring initiatives.

The Arctic cryosphere is a critically important component of the earth system, affecting the energy balance, atmospheric and ocean circulation, freshwater storage, sea level, the storage, and release of large quantities of greenhouse gases, economy, infrastructure, health, and indigenous and non-indigenous livelihoods, culture and identity. Currently, components of the Arctic cryosphere are subjected to dramatic change due to global warming. The need to document, understand, project, and respond to changes in the cryosphere and their consequences stimulated a comprehensive international assessment called “SWIPA”: Snow, Water, Ice, Permafrost in the Arctic. Some of the extensive key SWIPA chapters have been summarized and made more widely available to a global audience with multi-disciplinary interests in this Special Report of Ambio. In this article, an overview is provided of this Special Report in the context of the more detailed and wider scope of the SWIPA Report. Accelerated changes in major components of the Arctic cryosphere are documented. Evidence of feedback mechanisms between the cryosphere and other parts of the climate system are identified as contributing factors to enhanced Arctic warming while the growing importance of Arctic land-based ice as a contributor to global sea-level rise is quantified. Cryospheric changes will result in multifaceted and cascading effects for people within and beyond the Arctic presenting both challenges and opportunities.

Organochlorine compounds total DDT (ΣDDT), total HCH isomers (ΣHCH), toxaphenes (sum of Parlar 26, 50, 62), mirex, endrin, methoxychlor, total chlorinated benzenes (ΣCBz), total chlordane compounds (ΣCHL), polychlorinated biphenyls (total of 56 congeners; ΣPCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (sum of 7 tri- to hepta congeners; ΣPBDEs) were analysed in the blubber of adult ringed seals from the four areas of the Russian Arctic (White Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea and Chukchi Sea) collected in 2001-2005. Ringed seals from the south-western part of the Kara Sea (Dikson Island - Yenisei estuary) were the most contaminated with ΣDDTs, ΣPCBs, ΣCHL, and mirex as compared with those found in the other three areas of Russian Arctic, while the highest mean concentrations of ΣHCHs and PCDD/Fs were found in the blubber of ringed seals from the Chukchi Sea and the White Sea, respectively. Among all organochlorine compounds measured in ringed seals from the European part of the Russian Arctic, concentrations of ΣDDT and ΣPCBs only were higher as compared with the other Arctic regions. Levels of all other organochlorine compounds were similar or lower than in seals from Svalbard, Alaska, the Canadian Arctic and Greenland. ΣPBDEs were found in all ringed seal samples analysed. There were no significant differences between ΣPBDE concentrations found in the blubber of ringed seals from the three studied areas of the European part of the Russian Arctic, while PBDE contamination level in ringed seals from the Chukchi Sea was 30-50 times lower. ΣPBDE levels in the blubber of seals from the European part of the Russian Arctic are slightly higher than in ringed seals from the Canadian Arctic, Alaska, and western Greenland but lower compared to ringed seals from Svalbard and eastern Greenland.

The Arctic cryosphere is a critically important component of the earth system, affecting the earth’s energy balance, sea level, greenhouse gases and atmospheric circulation, transport of heat through ocean circulation, ecology and human resource use and well-being. The Arctic cryosphere is, however, changing rapidly with multiple important consequences that will potentially affect the earth system including the human population. The drivers of changes in the Arctic’s cryosphere, the recent and projected changes in the cryosphere and the consequences for future climate warming, sea level rise, ecology and human well-being, have been comprehensively assessed by the Arctic Council’s Snow Water, Ice, and Permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA) Project through its Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme Working Group. This article introduces the assessment and the associated papers within a special issue of the journal Ambio that extract and present some of the major findings of the SWIPA report.

In a speech in Murmansk, in October 1987, the then president of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev, called for international cooperation to addres pollution in the northern territories of the USSR and the bordering Arctic region.

The fccal pellet production of Abra alba was measured during exposure to different concentrations of diesel oil, drilling muds with different base fluids, oil-based cuttings and barite. For oil-based drilling muds a curvilinear regression ( y = ax + b log x + c ), gave a very good description of the relationship between fecal pellet production ( y ) and concentration of drilling mud in the sediment ( x ). EC 50 ) (5 days) values calculated from the regression equation ranged from 57 to >1000 mg kg −1 . The response was significantly correlated to the content of naphthenics in the mud. After 5 days of exposure to diesel oil and to two oil-based muds, no increase in the concentration of total hydrocarbons was found in the soft tissue of A. alba , and normal fecal pellet production was restored within 4–6 days in uncontaminated sediment. This suggests that the reduction in fecal pellet production may be due to a negative stimulus to feeding activity and ingestion, as well as to internal toxic effects on the organism. A reduction in feeding activity of A. alba may slow down the bioturbation of the sediments.

An international ring test was carried out in 1991 according to protocols distributed by the Paris Commission. Thirty laboratories in Norway, Sweden, UK, The Netherlands, Belgium, USA and Denmark performed approximately 200 toxicity tests using 17 different marine organisms. The ring test comprised testing of four chemicals: Two biocides — Bioban P-1487 and Vantocil IB, an oil-based drilling mud Carbo Sea DMA, and a reference compound 3,5-dichlorophenol. Amongst the selected species, the algae Skeletonema and Phaeodactylum were found to be the most sensitive. Acartia, Mysidopsis and Tisbe were equivalent together with Crassostrea , whereas the results regarding Chaetogammerus showed greater variations. In view of the results from the sediment-reworkers it was recommended to perform a new ring test in 1993 including Echinocardium, Abra, Nereis, Corophium and Bathyporeia . Considering the results from the Mytilus test, it was recommended to carry out further research on the preparation of chemicals difficult to handle, as there is a need for standardization of the preparations of test solutions of poorly soluble compounds and drilling muds.

The overall objective of RADARC’s research programme is to perform simulation scenarios for the 21st century, including global warming scenarios, of potential radioactive spreading from sources in the Russian Arctic coastal zone and its impact on Barents, Greenland and Norwegian Seas and the Arctic Ocean in order to supportdecision making for: risk prevention, forecasting and preparedness for probable crisis, alert and detection, relief and mitigation and damage assessment. These studies were realised using hydrodynamic modelling of the rivers, estuaries, coastal Kara Sea and the open ocean aquatic systems of the northern Russia and the Arctic and a related comprehensive database that was organised in a Geographical Information System (GIS). Under the RADARC project a new modelling approach was implemented using Generic Model System, where the four types of models were integrated and merged. The Generic Model System (GMS) that was created for the first time include the GIS and an interactive hydrodynamic models chain for simulations of radionuclide transport from relevant land-based sources through the river and estuary system to and in the Kara Sea as well as in the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans. The GMS consist of four adopted and validated hydrodynamic models: a medium resolution (50 km) 3-D numerical ice-ocean model for the Arctic and North Atlantic Ocean; nested with a high resolution (5 km) model for the Kara Sea including a sediment module; nested with the river model system including a one-dimensional model of river dynamics and radionuclide transport and three-dimensional model of Ob ́ and Yenisey estuarine and coastal areas hydrodynamics and radionuclide transport model. The most probable release scenarios for radionuclides were developed and simulation studies for selected future scenarios of radionuclear contamination was carried-out, using atmospheric forcing scenarios, including global warming, likely consistent with a CO2 doubling and control runs. Thus a new tool for an assessment of the potential radioactive spreading in the Arctic was created and the assessment of the potential radioactive spreading from rivers and external sources in the Russian Arctic Coastal Zone was developed and assessed, NERSC Technical report no. 249. Funded by the european Union under Contract no. ICA2-CT-2000-10037

In 1991, Ministers of the eight Arctic countries (Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and USA), adopted the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). To implement part of this strategy, the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) was established and requested by Ministers to “ examine levels of anthropogenic pollutants...from any sources...and to assess their effects in all relevant compartments of the Arctic environment ”. In 1996 the AEPS, including all its working groups, was reorganized under the newly formed Arctic Council. (Int J Circumpolar Health 2002; 61(4):300-318)

Four different oil-based drilling fluids were microencapsulated in a acacia/ gelatine structure. The microcapsules (size 1–10 μm) are dispersed in natural seawater in different concentrations, and fed to mussels in a running seawater system. One water-based drilling fluid was dispersed in seawater without microencapsulation. The growth in length of the exposed mussels was measured every 24 h for five days. Among the oil-based drilling fluids, the EC50 (5d) varied from < 1 to 66 ppm, and for the water-based drilling fluid EC50 ≫ 1000 ppm. There is no correlation between toxicity of the drilling fluids and their oil/water ratio, or between toxicity and the total content of aromatics in the base oils. The mussel test shows a markedly lower toxicity threshold than other tests with the same drilling fluids (Balanus-test, Microtox, Skeletonema-test). The results show that ingestion and digestion of the microencapsulated non-water soluble components of the drilling fluids may have a large impact on the overall toxicity, and that realistic estimates of specific toxicity have to include the effect of both particulate and dissolved fractions.