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The parasitoid wasp genus Trichacis Förster is revised for Europe. Examination of historical and modern collections combined with DNA barcoding revealed the presence of only a single species in Europe, Trichacis tristis (Nees, 1834), redescribed here. Fourteen new synonymies are proposed for T. tristis: T. abdominalis Thomson, 1859 syn.nov.; T. bidentiscutum Szabó, 1981 syn.nov.; T. didas (Walker, 1835) syn.nov.; T. fusciala Szabó, 1981 syn.nov.; T. hajduica Szabó, 1981 syn.nov.; T. illusor Kieffer, 1916 syn.nov.; T. nosferatus Buhl, 1997 syn.nov.; T. pisis (Walker, 1835) syn.nov.; T. persicus Asadi & Buhl, 2021 syn.nov.; T. pulchricornis Szelényi, 1953 syn.nov.; T. quadriclava Szabó, 1981 syn.nov.; T. remulus (Walker, 1835) syn.nov.; T. vitreus Buhl, 1997 syn.nov.; T. weiperti Buhl, 2019 syn.nov.. Four species are transferred to Amblyaspis Förster: A. afurcata (Szabó, 1977) comb. nov., A. hungarica (Szabó, 1977), comb. nov., A. pannonica (Szabó, 1977) comb. nov., and A. tatika (Szabó, 1977) comb. nov. Intraspecific variation, biological associations, and taxonomic history are discussed. DNA barcodes are provided and analyzed in the context of worldwide Trichacis and its sister genus Isocybus Förster.

For over a century, the metapleural gland, an exocrine gland above the hind coxa, has been thought to be a unique structure for ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and regarded as a catalyst for the ecological and evolutionary success of the family. This gland is one of the most researched exocrine glands in arthropods and its anatomy, ultrastructure, and chemistry are well documented. Herein, we describe an exocrine gland from the proctotrupoid wasp Pelecinus polyturator (Hymenoptera: Pelecinidae) with a similar position, structure, and chemistry to the ant metapleural gland: it is located just above the hind coxa, corresponds to an externally concave and fenestrated atrium, is composed of class 3 gland cells, and its extract contains relatively strong acids. We discover that the pelecinid gland is associated with the dilator muscle of the first abdominal spiracle, a trait that is shared with ants, but remained overlooked, possibly due to its small diameter, or obfuscation by the extensive metapleural gland. We also provide a biomechanical argument for passive emptying of the gland in both taxa. Pelecinids and ants with metapleural glands share a close association with soil. The pelecinid metapleural gland might therefore also have an antiseptic function as suggested for ants. We examined 44 other Hymenoptera families and found no glands associated with the oclusor apodeme or any signs of external modification. Our results strongly indicate that this complex trait (anatomical & chemical) evolved independently in ants and pelecinid wasps providing an exceptional system to better understand exocrine gland evolution in Hymenoptera.

Capturing phylogenetic signal from a massive radiation can be daunting. The superfamily Chalcidoidea is an excellent example of a hyperdiverse group that has remained recalcitrant to phylogenetic resolution. Chalcidoidea are mostly parasitoid wasps that until now included 27 families, 87 subfamilies and as many as 500,000 estimated species. We combined 1007 exons obtained with Anchored Hybrid Enrichment with 1048 Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) for 433 taxa including all extant families, over 95% of all subfamilies and 356 genera chosen to represent the vast diversity of the superfamily. Going back and forth between molecular results and our collective morphological and biological knowledge, we detected insidious bias driven by the saturation of nucleotide data and highlighted morphological convergences. Our final results are based on a concatenated analysis of the least saturated exons and UCE data sets (2054 loci, 284,106 sites). Our analyses support a sister relationship with Mymarommatoidea. Seven of the previously recognized families were not monophyletic, so foundations for a new classification are discussed. Biology appears potentially more informative than morphology, as illustrated by the elucidation of a clade of plant gall associates and a clade of taxa with planidial first-instar larvae. The phylogeny suggests a shift from smaller soft-bodied wasps to larger and more heavily sclerotized wasps. Deep divergences in Chalcidoidea coincide with an increase in insect families in the fossil record, and an early shift to phytophagy corresponds with the beginning of the “Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution”. Our dating analyses suggest a Middle Jurassic origin of 174 Ma (167.3-180.5 Ma) and a crown age of 162.2 Ma (153.9–169.8 Ma) for Chalcidoidea. During the Cretaceous, Chalcidoidea underwent a rapid radiation in southern Gondwana with subsequent dispersals to the Northern Hemisphere. This scenario is discussed with regard to knowledge about host taxa of chalcid wasps, their fossil record, and Earth’s paleogeographic history.

One key event in insect evolution was the development of mandibles with two joints, which allowed powerful biting but restricted their movement to a single degree of freedom. These mandibles define the Dicondylia, which constitute over 99% of all extant insect species. It was common doctrine that the dicondylic articulation of chewing mandibles remained unaltered for more than 400 million years. We report highly modified mandibles overcoming the restrictions of a single degree of freedom and hypothesize their major role in insect diversification. These mandibles are defining features of parasitoid chalcid wasps, one of the most species-rich lineages of insects. The shift from powerful chewing to precise cutting likely facilitated adaptations to parasitize hosts hidden in hard substrates, which pose challenges to the emerging wasps. We reveal a crucial step in insect evolution and highlight the importance of comprehensive studies even of putatively well-known systems.

As an interaction between insect and plant, galls present unique challenges to natural history collections. Traditionally, insects and plants are stored in different ranges within a museum, and a preserved gall may reasonably be placed in either one. Unidentified galls are especially difficult to categorize, as they may also be formed by non-insect agents (Roskam 2019). There is no uniform curatorial standard, which means that gall specimens do not always fit neatly into museum infrastructure. The gall collection at the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart (SMNS) serves as a model to explore the challenges of incorporating ecological interactions into digital and physical infrastructure, as well as the benefits and uses of the resulting digital data. The entomological collection at SMNS houses an estimated 1000 to 2000 uncatalogued gall specimens, collected over approximately 200 years. Preservation methods include herbarium sheets, envelopes, albums, file folders, cardboard boxes, and folded newspaper. Some galls are also pinned in the dry insect collection alongside their inhabitants. The oldest of these are from the personal collection of Karl von Roser, who collected around Stuttgart in the early 19th century (Fig. 1), although the exact collecting dates and localities are unknown. The study set included all specimens from the local state, Baden-Württemberg (n=395). Data were digitized via the DiversityCollection application in the Diversity Workbench (Triebel et al. 1999). A new data range was created for galls. Specimens were assigned accession numbers in order by date of collection. Updated taxonomic identifications of gall formers and host plants were included. Unidentified specimens were also accessioned, which would not have been feasible with the pre-existing collection ranges. Representatives of sixty-eight gall-forming species were further selected for photographic digitization (Fig. 2). Data standardization presented significant challenges. Both taxonomic and geographical nomenclature have changed over the last 200 years, so historical interpretation was often necessary. Geographical coordinates were approximated using Google Maps. This approach was labor intensive and required specialized cultural and linguistic knowledge. However, the end results were worthwhile, including many new faunistic records, discovery of surprisingly undersampled areas (e.g., the Black Forest), and creative implementations of the digital data (a computer game). Future streamlining of the process is needed to facilitate larger-scale ecological studies, such as understanding the effects of climate change and habitat loss on gall communities over time (James et al. 2018).

Scelionid wasps are arthropod egg parasitoids, many of which are relevant to global biosecurity. However, the scelionid fauna of Germany has not received much attention from professional taxonomists. Eleven species and four genera are recorded for the first time from Germany, including species of interest to agriculture and biological control. First genus records include Baryconus Förster, Macroteleia Westwood, Paratelenomus Dodd and Probaryconus Kieffer. First species records include B. europaeus (Kieffer), Idris nigroclavatus (Kieffer), Idris semiflavus (Kieffer), M. bicolora Kieffer, M. pannonica Szabo, Paratelenomus saccharalis (Dodd), Trimorus varicornis (Walker), Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston), Trissolcus belenus (Walker), Trissolcus colemani (Crawford) and Trissolcus flavipes (Thompson). COI barcodes are identified for the first time from B. europaeus and M. bicolora. Each species is illustrated and updated world distributions are provided. Implications for agriculture are discussed.

The geometrid genera Synopsia Hübner, 1825 and Synopsidia Djakonov, 1935 are revised, both being earlier validated at genus rank. Type specimens, original descriptions and additional specimens from different localities were examined. The revision is based on morphological characters, molecular data and distribution records. As a result, Synopsidia syn. nov. is regarded as junior synonym of the genus Synopsia. The synonymies of the species Scodonia tekkearia Christoph, 1883 and Synopsia znojkoi Djakonov, 1935 with Synopsia phasidaria phasidaria (Rogenhofer, 1873) comb. nov. are confirmed. Furthermore, Synopsidia phasidaria alvandi Wiltshire, 1966 syn. nov., Synopsidia phasidaria ardschira Brandt, 1938 syn. nov., Synopsidia phasidaria chiraza Brandt, 1938 syn. nov., Hashtaresia jodes Wehrli, 1936 syn. nov. and Synopsidia phasidaria mirabica Wehrli, 1941 syn. nov. are regarded as synonyms of Synopsia phasidaria phasidaria (Rogenhofer, 1873) comb. nov.. Synopsia phasidaria afghana (Wiltshire, 1966) comb. nov. is tentatively validated at subspecific rank. Synopsia centralis (Wiltshire, 1966) comb. nov., bona sp. is upgraded from subspecies to species level. Wing pattern, as well as male and female genitalia and diagnostic characters of examined genera and species are illustrated and analyzed. The distribution patterns of Synopsia phasidaria comb. nov. and Synopsia centralis bona sp., as well as the type localities of all discussed taxa, are provided. A complete checklist of the genus is given.

A new fossil species of Eulophidae, Kressleinius celans, gen. et sp. nov., is described from Eocene Baltic amber. It does not place into any extant genera within Eulophidae due to a lack of distinctive synapomorphies. The results of a morphology-based phylogenetic analysis placed K. celans in Tetrastichinae because of features shared with several genera, including having 6 flagellomeres past the anelli, admarginal setae short, propleura diverging, and a newly described feature of the transepimeral sulcus. This represents the oldest known fossil for the largest family of Chalcidoidea in terms of described species.

The non-European taxa of the genus Nychiodes Lederer, 1853 are revised. Type specimens of all described species and a large series of about 800 additional specimens were morphologically examined. More than 400 genitalia preparations were made and analyzed along with distributional and DNA barcode data. As a result of our integrative taxonomic approach, Nychiodes waltheri saerdabica Wehrli, 1938 syn. nov., is synonymized with N. waltheri Wagner, 1919; N. palaestinensis libanotica Zerny, 1933 syn. nov. is synonymized with N. palaestinensis Wagner, 1919 and the synonymy of N. persuavis Wehrli, 1929 syn. rev. with N. palaestinensis is confirmed; N. admirabila safidaria Wiltshire, 1943 syn. nov. is synonymized with N. admirabila Brandt, 1938; N. agatcha Brandt, 1938 syn. nov., N. subvirida disjuncta Wehrli, 1941 syn. nov. and N. subvirida taftana Brandt, 1941 syn. nov. are synonymized with N. subvirida Brandt, 1938. Also, N. variabila variabila Brandt, 1938 syn. nov., N. variabila opulenta Brandt, 1941 syn. nov., N. divergaria elbursica Wehrli, 1937 syn. nov., N. divergaria fallax Wehrli, 1939 syn. nov. and N. divergaria achtyca Wehrli, 1939 syn. nov. are synonymized with N. divergaria Staudinger, 1892. Nychiodes convergata sp. nov. from Israel, N. mirzayansi sp. nov. from the Iran and N. eberti sp. nov. from Turkey are described. Lecto- and paralectotypes are designated for N. palaestinensis, N. antiquaria, N. divergaria. Furthermore, N. antiquaria is reported as a new species for Pakistan, N. rayatica is reported as a new species for Iran and the hypothetical occurrence of N. amygdalaria in Iran is confirmed. Additionally, N. tyttha needs to be excluded from the genus. Wing pattern, male and female genitalia and diagnostic characters of all examined species are illustrated and distribution maps are provided. Illustrated keys based on genitalia, as well as a complete checklist of the genus is given here.

Chalcidoidea are a megadiverse group of mostly parasitoid wasps of major ecological and economical importance that are omnipresent in almost all extant terrestrial habitats. The timing and pattern of chalcidoid diversification is so far poorly understood and has left many important questions on the evolutionary history of Chalcidoidea unanswered. In this study, we infer the early divergence events within Chalcidoidea and address the question of whether or not ancestral chalcidoids were small egg parasitoids. We also trace the evolution of some key traits: jumping ability, development of enlarged hind femora, and associations with figs. Our phylogenetic inference is based on the analysis of 3,239 single-copy genes across 48 chalcidoid wasps and outgroups representatives. We applied an innovative a posteriori evaluation approach to molecular clock-dating based on nine carefully validated fossils, resulting in the first molecular clock-based estimation of deep Chalcidoidea divergence times. Our results suggest a late Jurassic origin of Chalcidoidea, with a first divergence of morphologically and biologically distinct groups in the early to mid Cretaceous, between 129 and 81 million years ago (mya). Diversification of most extant lineages happened rapidly after the Cretaceous in the early Paleogene, between 75 and 53 mya. The inferred Chalcidoidea tree suggests a transition from ancestral minute egg parasitoids to larger-bodied parasitoids of other host stages during the early history of chalcidoid evolution. The ability to jump evolved independently at least three times, namely in Eupelmidae, Encyrtidae, and Tanaostigmatidae. Furthermore, the large-bodied strongly sclerotized species with enlarged hind femora in Chalcididae and Leucospidae are not closely related. Finally, the close association of some chalcidoid wasps with figs, either as pollinators, or as inquilines/gallers or as parasitoids, likely evolved at least twice independently: in the Eocene, giving rise to fig pollinators, and in the Oligocene or Miocene, resulting in non-pollinating fig-wasps, including gallers and parasitoids. The origins of very speciose lineages (e.g., Mymaridae, Eulophidae, Pteromalinae) are evenly spread across the period of chalcidoid evolution from early Cretaceous to the late Eocene. Several shifts in biology and morphology (e.g., in host exploitation, body shape and size, life history), each followed by rapid radiations, have likely enabled the evolutionary success of Chalcidoidea.

A quick and easy handling method for ethanol-preserved arthropods is presented, based on tea filter bags and holders. The method is especially suitable for short term storage of specimens resulting from Malaise traps, yellow pan traps and pitfall traps and can be used directly in the field, for subsequent transport and processing of specimens in the laboratory.

Chrysolampine wasps belong to a unique lineage of Chalcidoidea characterized by mobile first instar larvae and known as the planidial clade. The fossil history of this biologically highly derived group of parasitoids is still little known due to the scarcity of preserved fossils. Here, we report the discovery of four specimens of Chrysolampinae from Eocene Baltic amber, representing the first fossil record for the subfamily. All specimens can be assigned to the extant genus Brachyelatus Hoffer & Novicky and are described as Brachyelatus marthae sp. nov. Brachyelatus is characterized by a number of putative plesiomorphies, such as a short petiole and a smoothly sloping pronotum. Synapomorphies with other Chrysolampinae include pores in sloping depressions on the male scape, shape of the clypeus, and features of the fore wing venation. The fossils differ from all examined extant members of Chrysolampinae by the arrangement of the uncal sensilla on the fore wing stigma in a straight line.

Mounting and preparing arthropods in liquids for photography and further investigations is a challenging task and may lead to unsatisfactory results and, in the worst case, to damage to specimens. A new method is presented here, which allows the fixation of specimens of different sizes under various degrees of pressure. The method is illustrated by three case studies from different groups of insects and arachnids.

Biodiversity loss is mainly driven by human activity. While concern grows over the fate of hot spots of biodiversity, contemporary species losses still prevail in industrialized nations. Therefore, strategies were formulated to halt or reverse the loss, driven by evidence for its value for ecosystem services. Maintenance of the latter through conservation depends on correctly identified species. To this aim, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research is funding the GBOL project, a consortium of natural history collections, botanic gardens, and universities working on a barcode reference database for the country’s fauna and flora. Several noticeable findings could be useful for future campaigns: (i) validating taxon lists to serve as a taxonomic backbone is time-consuming, but without alternative; (ii) offering financial incentives to taxonomic experts, often citizen scientists, is indispensable; (iii) completion of the libraries for widespread species enables analyses of environmental samples, but the process may not hold pace with technological advancements; (iv) discoveries of new species are among the best stories for the media; (v) a commitment to common data standards and repositories is needed, as well as transboundary cooperation between nations; (vi) after validation, all data should be published online via the BOLD to make them searchable for external users and to allow cross-checking with data from other countries.

The oldest fossil record of the extinct parasitoid wasp family Spathiopterygidae is provided from Lower Cretaceous (pre-Upper Barremian–Lower Bedoulian) Lebanese amber. The description of Mymaropsis baabdaensis sp. n. is based on the first female specimen available for the family and significantly expands the known temporal distribution of Spathiopterygidae to the Early Cretaceous. Female characters are added to the diagnosis of the family and phylogenetically relevant morphological characters are discussed.

Palaeontology and biology are closely related sciences, as are the collections associated with them. Nevertheless there are differences between the two types of collections and the scientific data that they yield with regards to taxonomy, climate and ecology. In order to bridge the gap between the two subjects, it is important to clarify what these differences are and how they can be used to supplement research that addresses future environmental/climatic issues. In biology, valuable traits of the whole organism serve for taxonomy. In the fossil record, a morphospecies concept needs to be used because specimens are mainly preserved fragmentarily and palaeontologists have to take advantage of morphological traits that are often disregarded by biologists. Another difference is that biological objects represent modern time, while the fossil record provides valuable information on a deep time perspective, i.e., in a third dimension. Yet, these two disciplines obviously depend on each other: while biologists provide palaeontologists with information about unfossilised soft parts, palaeontology can help to solve questions about life in the past. Using four current case studies from the Stuttgart Natural History Museum, we provide examples of how biological and palaeontological information stored in museum collections are linterlinked, and particularly how palaeontology can help to solve current and future problems. We also highlight the potential of palaeontological collections and demonstrate the necessity of digitizing large quantities of objects as well as the related basic information. Case studies are: Fossil leaves provide evidence for past atmospheric CO2 levels and climate change, which can be used for climate change models. Fossils help to understand current and future hazards e.g., fossils embedded in tsunami sediments can provide information on how tsunamis affect shelf marine ecosytems. Extensive taxonomic studies of Miocene land snails and the comparison with extant relatives allow the reconstruction of fossil environments. Combined with complementary methods, the biological, geological and meteorological factors controlling these environments can be reconstructed. Phylogenetic studies tell us how life evolved and how organisms have changed through time. An important factor for phylogeny is the time-aspect, such as the splitting of lineages. Phylogenetic trees based on modern taxa can only be validated by fossils. We will present an example of insect phylogeny. Fossil leaves provide evidence for past atmospheric CO2 levels and climate change, which can be used for climate change models. Fossils help to understand current and future hazards e.g., fossils embedded in tsunami sediments can provide information on how tsunamis affect shelf marine ecosytems. Extensive taxonomic studies of Miocene land snails and the comparison with extant relatives allow the reconstruction of fossil environments. Combined with complementary methods, the biological, geological and meteorological factors controlling these environments can be reconstructed. Phylogenetic studies tell us how life evolved and how organisms have changed through time. An important factor for phylogeny is the time-aspect, such as the splitting of lineages. Phylogenetic trees based on modern taxa can only be validated by fossils. We will present an example of insect phylogeny. These case studies not only show how biology and palaeontology are interlinked, but the first three studies are sound examples of how the knowledge of the past helps to understand the present. Furthermore, the first two studies are highly relevant for predicting the future. All of this information can only be used appropriately, if large proportions of data are available that include information on geology and age. For this reason, the Access to Biological Collection Data Extended for Geosciences (ABCD EFG) standard is so important, as it extends the two-dimensional view (Recent) into a third dimension (deep time). Our vision is an integrated modelling of past, present and future scenarios, whether for climate or ecosystem change, or geological hazards. Considering the deep time information, we can model how changes would take place under natural conditions, i.e., without anthropogenic influence. This requires the availability of large data sets of taxonomic information on the EFG level from all over the world.

Karyotypes of two cryptic species of parasitoid Hymenoptera with n = 5 and 6 belonging to the Lariophagus distinguendus (Förster, 1841) complex, which includes cosmopolitan parasitoids of coleopteran stored-product pests, were studied using glass-needle based microdissection, reverse and cross-species fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). This experiment strongly indicates that the largest metacentric chromosome in the karyotype with n = 5 originated from a particular fusion between the only acrocentric and a smaller metacentric chromosome of the set with n = 6, therefore confirming our previous hypothesis based on the karyotypic analysis using chromosome morphometrics. This study represents the first successful application of both microdissection and whole chromosome painting for the reconstruction of karyotypic rearrangements in closely related species of parasitoids, as well as in the order Hymenoptera in general.

Jewel wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) are extremely species-rich today, but have a sparse fossil record from the Cretaceous, the period of their early diversification. Three genera and three species,Diversinitus attenboroughigen. & sp. n., Burminata caputaeriagen. & sp. n. andGlabiala barbatagen. & sp. n. are described in the family Diversinitidae fam. n., from Lower Cretaceous Burmese amber. Placement in Chalcidoidea is supported by the presence of multiporous plate sensilla on the antennal flagellum and a laterally exposed prepectus. The new taxa can be excluded from all extant family level chalcidoid lineages by the presence of multiporous plate sensilla on the first flagellomere in both sexes and lack of any synapomorphies. Accordingly, a new family is proposed for the fossils and its probable phylogenetic position within Chalcidoidea is discussed. Morphological cladistic analyses of the new fossils within the Heraty et al. (2013) dataset did not resolve the phylogenetic placement of Diversinitidae, but indicated its monophyly. Phylogenetically relevant morphological characters of the new fossils are discussed with reference to Cretaceous and extant chalcidoid taxa. Along with mymarid fossils and a few species of uncertain phylogenetic placement, the newly described members of Diversinitidae are among the earliest known chalcidoids and advance our knowledge of their Cretaceous diversity.

We studied the ability of the parasitoid species Lariophagus distinguendus (Forster) and Anisopteromalus calandrae (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to locate populations of the granary weevil Sitophilus granarius (L.) (Coleoptera: Dryophtoridae) in grain residues. Experiments were conducted under laboratory and storage-like conditions. Generally both parasitoid species were able to find hosts up to 10 m from the release spot. Under laboratory conditions with excluded air movement and a centered light source, host finding was largely random, declining with increasing distance of baits from the release spot. Under storage-like conditions, host finding was strongly reduced and was not influenced by distance. A. calandrae seems to have been influenced by positive phototaxis. L. distinguendus showed a weaker host-finding success than A. calandrae, which was increased by a higher number of wasps from 10–50 per release. This resulted in a 5-fold higher number of parasitizations. It is discussed that host finding of residual pest populations by L. distinguendus and A. calandrae in empty storages is difficult to predict and influenced by light and air conditions. Based on our results, we provide recommendations for the release of parasitoids against residual pest populations.

A new stalk-eyed wasp Axima nordestina sp. n. is described from the Northeastern Brazilian savannah. Axima nordestina is the fourth species of stalk-eyed wasps (A. noyesi species group) and the second one known from Brazil. The head morphology of A. nordestina appears less derived than in the other known species. An updated key of the A. noyesi species group is provided. Keywords: Axima noyesi species group, Chalcidoidea, Maranhão, New species

The wasp family Vespidae comprises more than 5000 described species which represent life history strategies ranging from solitary and presocial to eusocial and socially parasitic. The phylogenetic relationships of the major vespid wasp lineages (i.e., subfamilies and tribes) have been investigated repeatedly by analyzing behavioral and morphological traits as well as nucleotide sequences of few selected genes with largely incongruent results. Here we reconstruct their phylogenetic relationships using a phylogenomic approach. We sequenced the transcriptomes of 24 vespid wasp and eight outgroup species and exploited the transcript sequences for design of probes for enriching 913 single-copy protein-coding genes to complement the transcriptome data with nucleotide sequence data from additional 25 ethanol-preserved vespid species. Results from phylogenetic analyses of the combined sequence data revealed the eusocial subfamily Stenogastrinae to be the sister group of all remaining Vespidae, while the subfamily Eumeninae turned out to be paraphyletic. Of the three currently recognized eumenine tribes, Odynerini is paraphyletic with respect to Eumenini, and Zethini is paraphyletic with respect to Polistinae and Vespinae. Our results are in conflict with the current tribal subdivision of Eumeninae and thus, we suggest granting subfamily rank to the two major clades of "Zethini": Raphiglossinae and Zethinae. Overall, our findings corroborate the hypothesis of two independent origins of eusociality in vespid wasps and suggest a single origin of using masticated and salivated plant material for building nests by Raphiglossinae, Zethinae, Polistinae, and Vespinae. The inferred phylogenetic relationships and the open access vespid wasp target DNA enrichment probes will provide a valuable tool for future comparative studies on species of the family Vespidae, including their genomes, life styles, evolution of sociality, and co-evolution with other organisms.

Dominocephala vibrissae gen. et sp. nov. is described from lower Miocene to mid-Oligocene Dominican amber. The new species represents the first fossil record of the pteromalid subfamily Cerocephalinae within the megadiverse parasitoid superfamily Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Selected morphological characters of the new species are discussed from a phylogenetic perspective with reference to extant cerocephaline taxa. An updated key to the genera of world Cerocephalinae is presented. D. vibrissae was trapped in resin with a number of other insects, including six specimens of ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Platypodidae), which represent a possible host species of the new species. The fossil provides a minimum age of 23–30 Ma for the subfamily Cerocephalinae and for a potential host switch within Chalcidoidea to endophytic (wood-, cone- or seed-boring) beetles.

This is an edited book with original scientific papers of the results of the 6th International Congress on Fossil Insects, Arthropods and Amber (FossilX3) held in Byblos, Lebanon in April, 2013. In the tradition of previous congresses, researchers from around the world gathered to discuss the latest developments and to build new co-operative endeavours. Recognizing that the future of our science is one of interdisciplinary collaboration, these meetings steadily grow in importance, and proceedings such as this reveal the latest hypotheses and conclusions, while inspiring others toward newer and greater goals.

Flabellate antennae have evolved numerous times in males of several insect groups where they carry olfactory receptor neurons enabling the individuals to locate females over long distances. In Recent Hymenoptera, one of the largest species radiations among the Animalia, flabellate antennae are relatively uncommon. Here we describe Atefia rasnitsyni gen. et sp. nov. from the Lower Cretaceous Crato Formation of Brazil, representing the first fossil hymenopteran with a biflabellate antenna. The fossil indicates that long-distance mate finding behaviour in Hymenoptera was already well established in the Lower Cretaceous. The new fossil is taxonomically challenging and shares morphological characters with Recent Pergidae and Diprionidae. However, it lacks definite diagnostic features of either family and is here left unplaced as an early lineage of Tenthredinoidea. The occurrence and structural diversity of flabellate antennae in Recent Tenthredinoidea is discussed in a phylogenetic framework. http://zoobank.o...