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Interactions between wildlife and tourism can be studied from several different perspectives and the effects of such interactions can influence animals both positively and negatively with effects on both individual and population levels. This thesis takes an interdisciplinary approach, combining both natural and social perspectives, when studying the effects of tourism activity on a small population of the endangered arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus). We have studied arctic foxes inhabiting disturbed and undisturbed den sites in Helagsfjällen, which is the southernmost population of arctic foxes in Sweden and a popular area for recreational activities such as hiking, skiing and camping. The overall objective of the thesis has been to contribute to good management of both arctic foxes and tourism within the study area, as well as to contribute with a comprehensive study of simultaneous disturbance effects and fitness consequences of wildlife tourism activities to the scientific field of wildlife-tourism interactions. The first two papers focus on different aspects of behavioral responses of arctic foxes towards human activity, the third paper evaluates potential fitness consequences and the fourth paper focus on the tourist aspect of the interaction. Behavioral changes in response to tourism disturbance that have been identified in the foxes include changes in vigilance and probability of hiding (Paper I), temporal activity shift at the den site (Paper II) and increased tolerance to human activity (Paper I, Paper II). Juvenile summer survival was higher at disturbed dens compared with undisturbed dens during years of declining small rodent densities (Paper III). Small rodent decline years is when the predation on arctic foxes is presumed to be highest and we suggest that the positive fitness effect could be mediated by a human-induced predator refuge for the foxes in close proximity of human activity. On the tourist aspect, we have identified effects on behavior, knowledge

Bakgrund: Depressiva symtom är den mest förekommande formen av psykisk ohälsahos äldre personer i dagsläget. Gruppen av äldre människor ökar vilket gör att denpsykiska ohälsan också ökar. Depressiva symtom kan visa sig på flera sätt, några avdessa kan vara minnesstörningar, nedstämdhet, ledsamhet och oro. Depressiva symtomkan uppstå av flera anledningar, det kan vara ensamhet, läkemedelsbiverkningar ellersmärta.Syfte: Syftet med studien var att beskriva äldre personers erfarenheter av ensamhet ochdepressiva symtom.Metod: Samtliga artiklar kommer från PubMeds databas. Studien är en beskrivandelitteraturstudie där åtta kvalitativa artiklar och tre artiklar med mixad metod hargenomgått en innehållsanalys samt granskats i relevans- och kvalitetsmallar. Dessa harsedan sammanställts för att besvara studiens syfte och frågeställning.Huvudresultat: I många fall upplevs depressiva symtom och ensamhet samtidigt hosäldre personer. I några situationer är ensamhet relaterat till förändrade livssituationersom förluster av nära relationer, begränsad autonomi, kroppsliga hinder och förändradeboendesituationer. Depressiva symtom kan uppkomma till följd av ensamhet, vilket görde äldre personerna nedstämda, känner meningslöshet och tappar framtidstro.Slutsats: Många äldre upplever ensamhet och depressiva symtom, men det finns enstigmatisering kring att prata om sitt psykiska mående. Ensamhet och depressivasymtom förekommer ofta i relation till varandra hos äldre personer.Nyckelord: Depressiva symtom, ensamhet, förlust, erfarenheter, upplevelser, äldrepersoner

The rapidly growing interest for nature-based recreational activities threaten biodiversity values and increases the disturbance caused to wildlife. Several studies have demonstrated spatial and temporal activity shifts of animals in response to human disturbance. However, most studies investigate effects on how animals use an area of high tourism disturbance, such as a tourist resort or hiking trail, and not the effects of human disturbance at a key site for the animal, such as a denning or breeding site. In this study, we use photos from remote camera monitoring of arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) dens with the aim to investigate the effects of various levels of tourism disturbance on the diurnal activity pattern and vigilance of breeding adult arctic foxes at the den site. We find a temporal shift towards a higher daytime activity at the den in response to high intensity tourism (71 +/- 3.9% in disturbed areas compared with 53 +/- 6.2% in undisturbed areas), which stands in contrast to an increased nocturnality seen in studies of many other species, including another study of arctic foxes. We suggest that the difference could be explained by the higher cost of avoiding a key site for the animal, as in this study, compared with avoiding a more general human disturbance in an area within the distribution range of the animal, as in most other studies. Increased time spent avoiding the perceived threat of humans could compromise other important activities and have potential negative effects on e.g. hunting or provisioning for the juveniles. Human disturbance focused at a key site, such as a denning or breeding site, can thereby be expected to have larger consequences than what is observed in most studies of disturbance effects on wildlife. Based on observations of both tourists and arctic foxes during close encounters in an area of high intensity tourism, we also find that they both respond behaviorally to each other. The potential for positive or negative feedback mechan

Genetic rescue can facilitate the recovery of small and isolated populations suffering from inbreeding depression. Long-term effects are however complex and examples spanning over multiple generations under natural conditions are scarce. The aim of this study was to test for long-term effects of natural genetic rescue in a small population of Scandinavian Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus). By combining a genetically verified pedigree covering almost 20 years with a long-term dataset on individual fitness (n=837 individuals), we found no evidence for elevated fitness in immigrant F2 and F3 compared to native inbred foxes. Population inbreeding levels showed a fluctuating increasing trend and emergence of inbreeding within immigrant lineages shortly after immigration. Between 0-5 and 6-9 years post immigration, the average population size decreased by almost 22 % and the average proportion of immigrant ancestry rose from 14 % to 27 %. Y chromosome analysis revealed that two out of three native male lineages were lost from the gene pool, but all founders represented at the time of immigration were still contributing to the population at the end of the study period through female descendants. The results highlight the complexity of genetic rescue and suggest that beneficial effects can be brief. Continuous gene flow may be needed for small and threatened populations to recover and persist in a longer time perspective.

Nature-based recreational and tourism activities can exert significant direct and indirect impacts on wildlife, through behavioral, physiological and distributional changes. Despite many studies demonstrating such changes, few attempts have been made to quantify the fitness consequences and evaluate their biological significance. Helagsfjallen in Sweden is a core area of the endangered Fennoscandian arctic foxVulpes lagopus, and a popular area for recreational tourism. Some dens in the area experience daily disturbance from tourism during the summer season, while others are virtually undisturbed. We used a long-term dataset (2008-2017) of 553 juveniles in 74 litters to investigate summer juvenile survival, which is an important fitness component for the arctic fox. We found that the mean juvenile survival rate increased from 0.56 at undisturbed dens to 0.83 at disturbed den during years of decreasing small-rodent abundance, where predation on the arctic fox is presumed to be highest. We suggest that the increased survival could be mediated by a human activity-induced predator refuge for the arctic foxes in close proximity of trails and mountain huts. Our study demonstrates a possible positive indirect effect of nature-based tourism on wildlife and is one of a few studies attempting to quantify this impact. It highlights the importance of context for how animals are affected by disturbance. We also demonstrate that studying how the effects of tourism activity vary depending on the context could provide opportunities for identifying the mechanisms behind these effects, which can be an important link between scientific research and the management of wildlife and tourism activities.

There are both positive and negative impacts on wildlife associated with wildlife tourism. In Sweden, the endangered Arctic fox is subject to a growing tourist interest. In the Helags mountain region there are guided Arctic fox safari tours that provide visitors with information about the Arctic fox. A survey of five separate groups of visitors in the region revealed that knowledge about the status of Arctic foxes and awareness of the behavioral guidelines for Arctic fox encounters improved after participation in a safari tour and with increasing Arctic fox interaction. We propose a schematic model summarizing the diverse ways in which wildlife tourism affects wildlife and their relative importance for conservation. The Arctic fox population in Sweden is small and sensitive to disturbance, but the positive impacts of Arctic fox tourism seem to compensate for the negative and contribute to their conservation under the current level of tourism pressure.