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Many interventions feature a singular component approach to targeting children’s motor competency and proficiency. Yet, little is known about the use of integrative interventions to meet the complex developmental needs of children aged 3–6 years. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an integrative universally designed intervention on children with and without disabilities’ motor competency and proficiency. We selected children (N = 111; disability = 24; no disability = 87) to participate in either a school-based integrative motor intervention (n = 53) or a control condition (n = 58). Children in the integrative motor intervention both with and without disabilities showed significant improvement in motor competency and proficiency (p

Participation in youth sport is positively associated with physical fitness and performance. The purpose of the current study was to examine if physical fitness measures during childhood and early ...

While football/soccer is the most influential sport in the world, it is surprising that developmental sequences of forceful kicking have not been adequately described and validated in the literature. The purpose of this study was to explore potential developmental sequences for forceful kicking using a prelongitudinal screening method. Data were derived from videotapes of 255 children (girls n = 138, boys: n = 117), ages 4–11 years. Seven potential component sequences in their respective developmental order were initially proposed based on biomechanical and motor developmental principles. Each participant was digitally videoed performing five kicks with maximal effort. Trained research staff coded the initial seven components for each kick and the mode of each participant’s five kicks was used for data analysis. Component level probability curves for each component sequence across age were evaluated using the threshold based generalized partial credit model (Muraki, 1992) within the item response theory framework. As developmental theory would indicate, component levels generally increased with age for most components. Six component ordinal sequence progressions met model requirements (Rel = 0.88, item fit; p > 0.05). Ordinal levels for two components ( Knee action and Follow-through) were altered based on initial empirical model structure fit and the Ball contact component was removed based on a lack of model fit. This study provides sufficient cross-sectional evidence for six component developmental sequences that adequately describe the development of kicking using cross-sectional data. Longitudinal data are required to provide further developmental validation for these sequences.

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development - second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.

The Michigan State University Motor Performance Study (MPS) was initiated in 1967 and lasted 32 years. Three central components existed: 1) Educational component, in which students experienced appl...

Sexual maturation is one method by which researchers account for developmental timing during growth. In a longitudinal motor performance study (MPS), mothers reported their own recalled age at mena...

Context: A variety of gait retraining interventions are available to modify running mechanics associated with musculoskeletal injuries. These often require specialized equipment and/or personnel to prompt the runner toward specific strategies. Objective: To determine whether instructing female recreational runners to “run quietly” could decrease impact force characteristics. Design: Cohort. Setting: Research laboratory. Participants: Fifteen healthy female recreational runners (24 [7] y) volunteered. Interventions: Baseline testing occurred on day 1 (baseline), a posttraining assessment occurred on day 2 (training), and a final assessment occurred 1 week after training on day 3 (follow-up). A smartphone decibel measuring app was used to provide biofeedback on the decibel level of foot strike on day 2 (training). Main Outcomes: Peak vertical force, impact transient, peak and average vertical loading rate, ground contact time, and running economy were collected on each day and compared via repeated-measures analyses of variance. Results: Vertical ground reaction force was lower at follow-up (2.30 bodyweights [BW]) versus baseline (2.39 BW, P = .023) and training (2.34 BW, P = .047). Maximal loading rate decreased from baseline (69.70 BW·s−1) to training (62.24 BW·s−1, P = .021) and follow-up (60.35 BW·s−1, P = .031). There was no change in running economy. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate that simple instructions to “run quietly” can yield immediate and sustained reductions in impact force profiles, which do not influence running economy.

Context: Previous work has demonstrated an improvement in running economy during sustained running on a lower body positive pressure treadmill, but neuromuscular and spatiotemporal measures have only been investigated during short-duration running bouts on these devices. The current study sought to replicate the noted metabolic response and investigate whether neuromuscular and/or spatiotemporal adaptations underlie the noted improvements in running economy. Design: Cross-sectional. Methods: Fifteen trained runners (11 males and 4 females) ran three 15-minute trials with 30% bodyweight support at 70% of the speed that elicited their peak oxygen consumption while running on a standard treadmill. A series of 1-way analyses of variance with repeated measures were used to explore differences in dependent variables over the 45 minutes of running. Dependent variables included oxygen consumption, root-mean-square electromyography of the vastus medialis and medial gastrocnemius during stance, and spatiotemporal parameters. Results: Oxygen consumption decreased after the initial exposure, with no further reductions after 20 minutes. Root-mean-square electromyography of the vastus medialis and medial gastrocnemius also decreased over time, with no further reductions after 20 and 10 minutes, respectively. No differences in spatiotemporal parameters were found. Conclusions: Future research should provide sufficient time for runners to develop a more economical gait pattern prior to collecting dependent variables, and previous findings using lower body positive pressure treadmills may need to be reconsidered. Athletes using these devices for training or rehabilitation should note that increased economy will lower the intensity of a given treadmill setting over time.

Childhood physical fitness relative to adult health outcomes coupled with scant longitudinal research indicates that tracking of fitness components throughout childhood/adolescence is imperative. T...

Research tracking sport participation from youth to adulthood is relatively rare, as is research that tracks youth sport participation with regard to adult physical activity (PA) levels, es...

There is a positive association between motor competence and physical activity in child populations. Little is known about the relative variance explained in physical activity when process- versus product-oriented approaches are used for evaluating motor competence. This study aimed to examine associations between product- and process-oriented motor competence assessments and their capability to explain variance in physical activity. Participants included 167 children between the ages of 6-9 years. The run, jump, throw and kick were assessed using process-oriented (Test of Gross Motor Development-2

In 1980, Seefeldt introduced the concept of a motor skill “proficiency barrier” that provides a conceptual basis for understanding the importance of a motor skill barrier as it relates to critical public health initiatives. While the intent of Seefeldt’s proficiency barrier hypothesis had great potential to advance the field of motor development, the notion of a proficiency barrier was not empirically tested. Instead, this concept lay dormant for several decades. The purpose of this paper was to expand upon Seefeldt’s proficiency barrier concept in greater detail by addressing the following questions: (1) what constitutes a motor proficiency barrier? (2) how do we assess/measure the existence of a proficiency barrier? and (3) how do we break through the proficiency barrier in order to maximize the likelihood of participation in health-enhancing levels of physical activity later on in life? We conclude with a future research suggestion to explore the existence of the proficiency barrier.

Highlights • Portuguese children (boys and girls) outperformed U.S. children in the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run test; additionally, Portuguese boys displayed better performance in the standing long jump. • Portuguese children demonstrated lower levels of handgrip strength and throwing speed than U.S. children. • There were no differences in kicking speed between boys from the 2 countries; however, the older group of U.S. girls demonstrated better performance than Portuguese girls. • Physical education curricula and sports participation may explain the differences between the countries., Background Motor competence and health-related fitness are important components for the development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle in children. This study examined cross-cultural performances on motor competence and health-related fitness between Portuguese and U.S. children. Methods Portuguese (n = 508; 10.14 ± 2.13 years , mean ± SD) and U.S. (n = 710; 9.48 ± 1.62 years) children performed tests of cardiorespiratory fitness (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run), upper body strength (handgrip), locomotor skill performance (standing long jump), and object projection skill performance (throwing and kicking). Portuguese and U.S. children were divided into 2 age groups (6–9 and 10–13 years) for data analysis purposes. A two–factor one–way analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was conducted with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, handgrip, standing long jump scores, kicking, and throwing speed (km/h) as dependent variables. Results Results indicated that Portuguese children, irrespective of sex, presented better performances in locomotor and cardiorespiratory performance (standing long jump and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run) than U.S. children in both age bands. U.S. children outperformed Portuguese children during throwing and handgrip tests. Kicking tests presented gender differences: Portuguese boys and U.S. girls outperformed their internationally matched counterparts. Conclusion Cultural differences in physical education curricula and sports participation may impact differences in motor competence and fitness development in these countries.

The health status and physical activity levels in the United States of adolescents and adults is disheartening. Many health professionals have been using the term exercise is medicine to advocate more physically active lifestyles. Unfortunately, the focus of most PE curriculums is directed toward a sport and game model, which research indicates does not prepare students for continued PA, exercise, and fitness. This article challenges higher education and secondary PE programs to reevaluate the curricular approach of a sport and game model and shift to a health-related fitness education model. Health-related fitness education can empower students to create and execute a plan for lifetime fitness through learning the skills (e.g., exercise modalities) and knowledge (e.g., goal setting, FITT principles, planning) needed for staying fit. Health-related fitness education also helps develop self-efficacy and other affective attributes that can motivate for lifelong habitual adherence. There is no greater time than now for PE to be the leader in exercise is medicine, by equipping youth with the tools to make exercise, PA, fitness, and health a way of life today and forever.Subscribe to TPE

There is an imperative need for secondary physical education programming to prepare students for lifetime fitness and health. Physical activity levels in adolescents and adults are dismal, and the negative health outcomes associated with sedentary behaviors are catastrophic. Secondary physical education programs have the opportunity to implement a curriculum that can enable students to create and execute their own health-enhancing fitness plan. The current focus in most programs is on a sport and game model that has had limited results in influencing the adoption of healthy lifestyle habits. The purpose of this article is to provide practitioners with a practical and feasible split-week program model that is designed to potentially induce behavioral change in students for lifelong physical activity and fitness. The split-week program holds health-related fitness education at the core while also teaching outdoor recreation, sport and rhythmic activities.

This study examined the existence of a threshold level (proficiency barrier) of actual motor competence (MC) below which a child is not likely to attain 60min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day.A cross-sectional study.Actual MC was assessed in 326 children (48.5% boys; age=9.50±1.24years) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2; MVPA was measured with ActiGraph GT3X+accelerometers. Perceived MC, included as a potential mediating variable, was assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Binary logistic (mediation) regression analyses controlling for sex and a chi-squared test were used to gain insight into the relationship between (the levels of) actual MC and the percentage of children meeting the MVPA guideline.Actual MC significantly predicted the percentage of children meeting the guideline (B=.03, SE=.01, p.001), even when controlling for sex. Perceived MC did not mediate this relationship. Children with high actual MC (65-100 percentile) were 2.46 (p=.003) times more likely to meet the guideline than children with low actual MC (0-27 percentile).The present study demonstrates the potential impact of low MC on children's MVPA levels and suggests evidence for the existence of a proficiency barrier for meeting MVPA guidelines. Almost 90% of the children whose actual MC is below the 'average' threshold do not meet the MVPA guideline. As more children with higher levels of actual MC meet the guideline than their less competent peers, it is crucial to provide opportunities to sufficiently develop children's actual MC.

Motor competence is associated with psychological and physical health outcomes. A reciprocal relationship between motor competence and perceptions of physical competence exists, but the developmental trajectory of the motor competence/perceived competence relationship is not well understood. Standardized assessments take a product- or process-oriented approach, but research concerning the motor competence/perceived competence relationship is limited to using process-oriented assessments. It is unknown whether boys and girls use product and process information differentially in the development of perceived competence. Children (N = 411) were aggregated into age groups. Perceived competence and product and process aspects of motor competence were assessed. Older children were more skillful than younger children but reported lower perceived competence. The motor competence/perceived competence association increased for both motor competence measures across age groups. Girls demonstrated stronger associations between process measures of motor competence and perceived competence, while boys indicated stronger associations between product measures of motor competence and perceived competence. When both motor competence measures were used to predict perceived competence, more variance in perceived competence was explained, compared with using independent predictors. The strength of the prediction increased across age groups, indicating that motor competence is a stronger predictor of perceived competence in older children.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a six-week Universal Design for Learning motor skill intervention (SKIP-UDL) on the fundamental motor skills (FMS) of young children with and without disabilities. Participants ages 3-5, (N = 69; females = 43%; Mage = 4.6, SD = .51, disability = 42%) completed the study. An ANOVA with repeated measures showed a significant main effect for time, F(1, 19) = 164.89, p < .001, η2 = .89, group, F(2, 18) = 6.610, p = .007, η2 = .42, as well as a group x time interaction, F(2, 18) = 38.52, p < .001, η2 = .67. Children in the SKIP-UDL disability and no disability groups remediated FMS delays by the end of the six-week SKIP-UDL. In contrast, the FMS of the children in the control group remained relatively constant from pre-test to post-test.

Luis Lopes is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (CEECIND/01089/2017 and FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Rute Santos is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (CEECIND/01069/2017 and FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Jorge Mota, Carla Moreira, Cesar Agostinis-Sobrinho, Pedro Silva and Eduarda Sousa-Sa are supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Erik Sigmund is supported by grant No. 19-03276S from the Czech Science Foundation; Irene Esteban-Cornejo is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (RTI2018-095284-J-100) and by the Spanish Ministry of of Science and Innovation (RYC2019-027287-I); Jaime Carcamo-Oyarzun is supported by the National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology of Chile (CONICYT-FONDECYT 11170525); Jonatan Ruiz is supported by the University of Granada Plan Propio de Investigacion 2016 (Excellence actions: Unit of Excellence on Exercise and Health [UCEES]), by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), by the Junta de Andalucia, Consejeria de Conocimiento, Investigacion y Universidades (ref. SOMM17/6107/UGR); Antonio Garcia-Hermoso is a Miguel Servet Fellow (Instituto de Salud Carlos III-FSE, CP18/0150)., Lack of physical activity is a global public health problem causing not only morbidity and premature mortality, but it is also a major economic burden worldwide. One of the cornerstones of a physically active lifestyle is Motor Competence (MC). MC is a complex biocultural attribute and therefore, its study requires a multi-sectoral, multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approach. MC is a growing area of research, especially in children and adolescents due to its positive association with a plethora of health and developmental outcomes. Many questions, however, remain to be answered in this field of research, with regard to: (i) Health and Developmental-related Associations of MC; (ii) Assessment of MC; (iii) Prevalence and Trends of MC; (iv) Correlates and Determinants of MC; (v) MC Interventions, and (vi) Translating MC Research into Practice and Policy. This paper presents a narrative review of the literature, summarizing current knowledge, identifying key research gaps and presenting questions for future investigation on MC in children and adolescents. This is a collaborative effort from the International Motor Competence Network (IMCNetwork) a network of academics and researchers aiming to promote international collaborative research and knowledge translation in the expansive field of MC. The knowledge and deliverables generated by addressing and answering the aforementioned research questions on MC presented in this review have the potential to shape the ways in which researchers and practitioners promote MC and physical activity in children and adolescents across the world., Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology FCT/UIDB/00617/2020 CEECIND/01089/2017 CEECIND/01069/2017, Grant Agency of the Czech Republic 19-03276S, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness RTI2018-095284-J-100, Spanish Ministry of of Science and Innovation RYC2019-027287-I, National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology of Chile (CONICYT-FONDECYT) 11170525, University of Granada Plan Propio de Investigacion, European Commission, Junta de Andalucia SOMM17/6107/UGR, Miguel Servet Fellow (Instituto de Salud Carlos III-FSE) CP18/0150

As obesity rates and physical inactivity levels continue to rise among American youth, the need for quality physical education programs is more important than ever. However, to many observers, physical education is a hindrance to academic time and a subject that does not bring value to the educational system. It is imperative for physical educators to advocate for and substantiate the true importance of the discipline. Children of today’s generation have limited experiences being in a physically demanding environment, but have many opportunities, especially through technology, to be in a “fun” environment; thus, there is a push for physical education and physical activity overall to be fun. However, children who are not physically challenged do not develop the mental fortitude to persevere and succeed in physically demanding activities and many other aspects of life in general. The physical education classroom is an ideal setting to foster a challenging and engaging environment that can help develop the skills, knowledge, fitness, mental resiliency, and self-confidence to succeed and continue in physical activity and fitness enhancement. Maintaining a sole focus of fun in physical education will not bring on the behavioral change desired for lifetime activity and fitness, because the skills needed for such endeavors will not be thoroughly established. The purpose of this article is to jump-start a crucial conversation among academicians about the importance of presenting challenging and engaging educational environments that align with the educational groundwork that has shaped the physical education field. Through a demanding and rigorous physical education curriculum, students will better develop the required skills and confidence to continue in lifetime activity and fitness, and fun will be a lasting by-product. Subscribe to TPE

Boerner, PR, Polasek, KM, True, L, Lind, E, and Hendrick, JL. Is what you see what you get? Perceptions of personal trainers' competence, knowledge, and preferred sex of personal trainer relative to physique. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 1949-1955, 2021-The role that a personal trainer's (PT) physique plays in how potential clients perceive the PT is an understudied, yet potentially powerful, area of inquiry that has important professional implications. The purpose of this study was to investigate how a PT's physique could influence perceptions of his/her (a) PT competence, (b) level of personal training knowledge, and (c) preferred sex of the PT. Subjects (n = 191) were presented with pictures of male and female volunteers labeled as PTs. The pictures emphasized physique and consisted of varying body types (ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph) and muscularity (muscular vs. nonmuscular). Subjects examined pictures to answer surveys to rate trainers' competence, knowledge, and preferred sex of PT. Personal trainer physique significantly influenced individuals' perceptions of trainer characteristics. Both mesomorphic and ectomorphic body types were rated as more competent than an endomorphic body type. Muscular PTs were perceived to be significantly more knowledgeable and competent than their nonmuscular peers. Female PTs were perceived as more competent and knowledgeable than male PTs. Findings also suggested many more males preferred to work with a male PT while females lacked consensus. Collectively, PT physique seems to have a profound influence whether they are approached or avoided. These findings may have implications for how PTs market themselves to potential clients.

This exploratory study examined the notion of Seefeldt's (1980) hypothesized motor skill "proficiency barrier" related to composite levels of health-related physical fitness (HRF) in young adults.A motor skill competence (MSC) index composed of maximum throwing and kicking speed and jumping distance in 187 young adults aged 18 to 25 years old was evaluated against a composite index of 5 health-related fitness (HRF) test scores. MSC (high, moderate, and low) and HRF indexes (good, fair, and poor) were categorized according to normative fitness percentile ranges. 2 separate 3-way chi-square analyses were conducted to determine the probabilities of skill predicting fitness and fitness predicting skill.Most correlations among HRF and MSC variables by gender demonstrated low-to-moderate positive correlations in both men (12/15; r = .23-.58) and women (14/15; r = .21-.53). Chi-square analyses for the total sample, using composite indexes, demonstrated statistically significant predictive models, chi2(1, N = 187) = 66.99, p.001, Cramer's V = .42. Only 3.1% of low-skilled (2 of 65) individuals were classified as having a "good" HRF. Only 1 participant (out of 65) who demonstrated high MSC was classified as having "poor" HRF (1.5%).Although individual correlations among individual MSC and HRF measures were low to moderate, these data provide indirect evidence for the possibility of a motor skill "proficiency barrier" as indicated by low composite HRF levels. This study may generate future research to address the proficiency barrier hypothesis in youth as well as adults.

Objectives Environmental characteristics within preschools that influence children’s motor competence are largely unknown. The purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of various preschool environmental characteristics to children’s locomotor, object control, and total gross motor scores. Design Cross-sectional, observational study of 3–5 year-old children (n = 229) from 22 preschools in South Carolina. Methods The Children’s Activity and Movement in Preschool Study (CHAMPS) Motor Skills Protocol assessed MC. Preschool directors provided information regarding policies and practices. The research team measured playgrounds and classrooms, and the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised assessed preschool quality. Time spent in open space and electronic media use were also assessed using direct observation. The aforementioned variables predicted children’s object control, locomotor, and total gross motor scores. Results Classroom size/child ratio, teacher education, playground size, electronic media use, and trips to outside organizations emerged as significant predictors of locomotor score and total motor score. The object control model was non-significant. Conclusions Preschools may be able to promote motor competence by allowing children more time in open spaces, structured activity experiences, and by expanding existing outdoor playground space whenever possible.