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Programi za vizualizaciju koristan su alat u edukaciji. Računala mogu obrađivati i prikazivati podatke brže i točnije od ljudi. Program za vizualizaciju funkcija više varijabli koristan je alat koji pomaže studentima u lakšem razumijevanju koncepata trodimenzionalnog prostora. U ovom radu opisana su područja potrebna za izradu ovakvog programa. Opisani su osnovni matematički pojmovi i pojmovi vezani za diferencijalni račun funkcija više varijabli. Opisana je i izrada jezičnog procesora za razumijevanje matematičkih izraza unesenih od strane korisnik te izrada virtualnog stroja za računanje vrijednosti tih izraza. Na kraju je objašnjeno kako je sve to kombinirano u program koji pomoću računalne grafike prikazuje grafove u trodimenzionalnom prostoru. Software for visualization are a useful tool in education. Computers can process and display data faster and more accurately than humans. Multivariable function visualization software is a useful tool that helps students understand the concepts of three dimensional space more easily. This paper describes the areas needed to develop such a program. Basic mathematical concepts and concepts related to the multivariable function differential calculus are described. The development of a language processor for understanding user-entered mathematical expressions and development of a virtual machine for calculating the value of these expressions is also described. Finally, it is also explained how all of this is combined into a software that uses computer graphics to display graphs in three dimensional space.

Este proyecto consiste en el estudio y integración de modelos de lenguaje natural en Xatkit, una plataforma open source de desarrollo de chatbots inteligentes. Las herramientas en las que se trabaja en este proyecto dotan a los chatbots de nuevas habilidades para extraer información sobre los mensajes que los usuarios les escriben. Determinar la toxicidad de un mensaje o detectar el idioma en el que está escrito un mensaje son algunas de las funcionalidades en las que se ha trabajado para integrar en Xatkit. Este documento presenta estudios sobre diferentes alternativas para cada funcionalidad que se desea integrar en Xatkit. El objetivo es escoger las mejores soluciones para su uso en chatbots. Será necesario analizar los resultados que generan los modelos, comparar el rendimiento de cada opción y determinar cuales serán las que los chatbots vayan a utilizar. This project consists of the study and integration of natural language models in Xatkit, an open source platform for the development of intelligent chatbots. The tools used in this project provide chatbots with new skills to extract information about the messages that users write to them. Determining the toxicity of a message or detecting the language in which a message is written are some of the functionalities that have been worked on to integrate into Xatkit. This document presents studies on different alternatives for each functionality that we want to integrate into Xatkit. The goal is to choose the best solutions for its usage in chatbots. It will be necessary to analyze the results generated by the models, compare the performance of each option and determine which ones the chatbots will use.

This paper describes the operating environment of the language processor intended for processing behavioral models of systems represented in natural language. This environment provides the tuning of the language processor; the main stage of this tuning is the construction of a syntactic table. An approach is proposed for automating the construction of grammar rules intended for replenishment of the syntactic table used by the language processor.

Auditory environments can influence the communication function of individuals with hearing loss and the effects of hearing aids. Therefore, a tool that can objectively characterize a patient’s real-world auditory environments is needed.To use the Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system to quantify the auditory environments of adults with hearing loss, to examine if the use of hearing aids changes a user’s auditory environment, and to determine the association between LENA variables and self-report hearing aid outcome measures.This study used a crossover design.Participants included 22 adults with mild-to-moderate hearing loss, age 64–82 yr.Participants were fitted with bilateral behind-the-ear hearing aids from a major manufacturer.The LENA system consists of a digital language processor (DLP) that is worn by an individual and records up to 16 hr of the individual’s auditory environment. The recording is then automatically categorized according to time spent in different types of auditory environments (e.g., meaningful speech and TV/electronic sound) by the LENA algorithms. The LENA system also characterizes the user’s auditory environment by providing the sound levels of different auditory categories. Participants in the present study wore a LENA DLP in an unaided condition and aided condition, which each lasted six to eight days. Participants wore bilateral hearing aids in the aided condition. Percentage of time spent in each auditory environment, as well as median levels of TV/electronic sounds and speech, were compared between subjects’ unaided and aided conditions using paired sample t tests. LENA data were also compared to self-report measures of hearing disability and hearing aid benefit using Pearson correlations.Overall, participants spent the greatest percentage of time in silence (∼40%), relative to other auditory environments. Participants spent ∼12% and 26% of their time in meaningful speech and TV/electronic sound environments, respectively. No significant differences were found between mean percentage of time spent in each auditory environment in the unaided and aided conditions. Median TV/electronic sound levels were on average 2.4 dB lower in the aided condition than in the unaided condition; speech levels were not significantly different between the two conditions. TV/electronic sound and speech levels did not significantly correlate with self-report data.The LENA system can provide rich data to characterize the everyday auditory environments of older adults with hearing loss. Although TV/electronic sound level was significantly lower in the aided than unaided condition, the use of hearing aids seemed not to substantially change users’ auditory environments. Because there is no significant association between objective LENA variables and self-report questionnaire outcomes, these two types of measures may assess different aspects of communication function. The feasibility of using LENA in clinical settings is discussed.

This chapter includes a history of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) and explores its development, key elements when considering AAC such as prevalence of needs, classification of systems, components of systems, important factors in AAC assessment and a section on evidence-based practice and service delivery in the United Kingdom followed by two case studies.

A live programming environment allows programmers to edit programs while they are running. This means that successive "edit steps" must not allow a programmer to bring the program in a form that does not make any sense to the underlying language processor (i.e., parser, compiler,...). Many live programming environments therefore rely on disciplined edit steps that are based on language elements such as objects, classes, and methods. Textual modifications to these elements are not seen as edit steps until some "accept" button is hit. Unfortunately, no such elements exist in current reactive languages. We present a new reactive language, called Haai, that is based on first-class higher-order reactors. Linguistically, Haai programs correspond to reactors or compositions of reactors. At run-time, reactors produce an infinite stream of values just like signals and behaviours in existing languages. Haai's live programming environment relies on textual modifications of entire reactors as its basic edit steps. Changing a reactor automatically updates all occurrences of that reactor in the reactive program, while it is running.

OBJECTIVE To investigate the feasibility of using a digital language processor (DLP) to objectively quantify the auditory and social environment of older adults. DESIGN Thirty-seven participants aged 64 to 91 years residing in a retirement community were asked to wear a DLP to record their auditory and language environment during 1 waking day. Recordings were analyzed with specialized software to derive quantitative estimates such as the number of spoken words heard and percentage of time spent around meaningful speech versus television/radio. RESULTS Adequate DLP recordings that began before 10 AM and lasted for 10 hours or greater were collected from 24 participants. The mean duration of recording was 13 hours and 13 minutes, and individuals spent a mean of 26.7% (range, 4%-58%) of their waking day near a television or other electronic sounds. The projected mean word count over a maximum of 16 hours was 33,141 with nearly a 14-fold range between the lowest and highest observed values (range, 5120-77,882). CONCLUSIONS High-quality objective data on the auditory environment of older adults can be feasibly measured with the DLP. Findings from this study may guide future studies investigating auditory and language outcomes in older adults.

In this chapter, we discuss the design and implementation of the pycca program itself. Pycca is designed as a language processor that reads DSL statements to populate a platform model and generates code by using a template system that queries the populated platform model. It is implemented in the Tcl language.

This study investigates the amount of language available to children in the home environment and a summer preschool program. The purpose of this study was twofold. First, the study sought to gain information about patterns of language use among families of preschoolers with hearing loss. Additionally, the project was designed to provide an initial investigation into the impact of reduced educational programming over summer months for children with hearing loss. Children with varying degrees of hearing loss were enrolled in an auditory-oral 6-week part-time program. The language environment during preschool and at home was analyzed through use of Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA). LENA is a digital language processor that can record and analyze through specific measurements the natural language environment of a child. Overall, the children studied received significantly more complex language in preschool than in the home environment. The data suggest that children with hearing loss benefit from the opportunity to attend summer preschool programming. Additionally, it is critical that parents of preschoolers continue to receive parental education surrounding use of language strategies in the home environment. Implications for practice are discussed.

We report an event-related potential study designed to explore the nature of context-induced topicality in Chinese discourse processing. Topic is what an utterance is about and represents the most prominent discourse element, which occurs sentence-initially in Chinese. We tested question-answer pairs consisting of topic and non-topic questions followed by different continuations (Topic-Continuity, Topic-Shift, Novel-Topic). ERPs were measured at distinct sentential positions and revealed that sentence-initially information processing is guided by topicality, which affects N400 and Late Positivity effects alike. In non-initial positions, the given-new distinction is the dominant principle, also modulating N400 and Late Positivity. The language processor hence utilizes a few core operations for information processing that depend on position-specific constraints.

The concept of “working” memory is traceable back to nineteenth‐century theorists, but the term itself was not used until the mid‐twentieth century. A variety of different explanatory constructs have since evolved that all make use of the working‐memory label. This history is briefly reviewed, and alternative formulations of working memory (as language processor, executive attention, and global work space) are considered as potential mechanisms for cognitive change within and between individuals and between species. A means, derived from the literature on human problem solving, of tracing memory and computational demands across a single task is described and applied to two specific examples of tool use by chimpanzees and early hominids. The examples show how specific proposals for necessary and/or sufficient computational and memory requirements can be more rigorously assessed on a task‐by‐task basis. General difficulties in connecting cognitive theories (arising from the observed capabilities of individu...

Pronouns that do not have explicit antecedents typically cause processing problems. We investigate a specific example in which this may not be the case, as in “At the interview, they asked really difficult questions,” where the plural pronoun they has no explicit antecedent, yet is intuitively easy to process. Some unspecified but constrained set of individuals (the interview panel or the company) can be inferred as the referent, but it is not crucial to determine specifically which entities are being referred to. We propose that this contrasts with the processing of singular pronouns (he or she), for which it is necessary to determine a specific referent. We used event-related brain potentials to investigate how readers process the pronoun (they vs. he/she) in these cases. Sentences were placed in a context that either did or did not contain an explicit antecedent for the pronoun. There were two key findings. Firstly, when there was no explicit antecedent, a larger fronto-central positivity was observed 750 msec after pronoun onset for he/she than they, possibly reflecting the additional difficulty involved in establishing a referent for he/she than for they when no explicit referent is available. Secondly, there was a larger N400-like deflection evoked by he/she than they, regardless of whether there was an explicit antecedent for the pronoun. We suggest that this is due to the singular pronouns bringing about a greater integration effort than the plural pronoun. This observation adds to a growing body of research revealing fundamental differences in the way these pronouns are handled by the language processor.

Internet documents are generally created with the sweeping assumption that hypertext's characteristics make for better reading. However, one type of reading does not fit all genres of writing. In fact, how people go about reading hypertext is a largely unanswered question. This essay examines whether hypertext syllabi discourage reading and discourage searching the Internet by suggesting to students that all they need is linked to the syllabus. Specifically, the essay examines a syllabus called “Ethics and the Internet” by Wendy Robinson at Duke University to see how some pages lend themselves to reading, and how others do not.

This paper presents a method for statically inferring a range of information including strictness, evaluation-order, and evaluation-status information in a higher-order polymorphically-typed lazy functional language. This method is based on a compile-time analysis called order-of-demand analysis, which provides safe information about the order in which the values of bound variables are demanded. The time complexity of the analysis is substantially less than that of other approaches such as path analysis [5] and compositional analysis [7] and comparable to that of strictness analysis.

The basic idea underlying processability theory (PT) is the following: at any stage of development the learner can produce and comprehend only those second language (L2) linguistic forms which the current state of the language processor can handle. Keywords: bilingualism; psycholinguistics; second language acquisition

On-line experiments, which provide a source of data common in adult psycholinguistics, are rare in developmental psycholinguistics. Our study uses an on-line task modified for examining children's real-time sentence processing. We compare children's and adults' interpretation of certain co-reference relations in a cross-modal picture decision task. Both children's and adults' reaction times distinguish between reflexives and pronouns. Further analysis of the child subjects, based on their performance in an offline experiment, shows two subgroups whose on-line performance was consistent with their off-line performance. We discuss two ways in which such data might prove useful, namely, to address questions concerning the development of the language processor and to illuminate “classic” problems in the acquisition of grammar.

The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of one cognitive view of language acquisition, Processability Theory (PT), which focuses on the development of grammar in L2 learners. The key assumption is that the development of L2 grammar is constrained by the language processor and that L2 grammatical development can be explained by the architecture of the language processor.

A hybrid network of evolutionary processors (an HNEP) is a graph with a language processor, input and output filters associated to each node. A language processor performs one type of point mutations (insertion, deletion or substitution) on the words in that node. The filters are defined by certain variants of random-context conditions. In this paper, we present a universal complete HNEP with 10 nodes simulating circular Post machines and show that every recursively enumerable language can be generated by a complete HNEP with 10 nodes. Thus, we positively answer the question posed in [5] about the possibility to generate an arbitrary recursively enumerable language over an alphabet Vwith a complete HNEP of a size smaller than 27 + 3·card(V).

Six experiments are reported that assess priming effects on lexical decision (in Serbo-Croatian) when the context is identifiable (unmasked conditions) and when it is unidentifiable due to forward masking (masked conditions). Word acceptance is slowed by a phone-mically similar context that is not masked but hastened by a phonemically similar context that is masked. Word acceptance is hastened by an associatively related context that is not masked; this facilitation is somewhat diminished when the context is masked. Finally, word acceptance is hastened by a grammatically related context that is not masked but is unaffected when the grammatical context is masked. These results can be rationalized in terms of a model of the language processor that maintains the autonomy of prelexical and postlexical levels but permits interaction among prelexical components.

International audience; Domain-specific aspect languages (DSALs) bring the well-known advantages of domain specificity to the level of aspect code. However, DSALs incur the significant cost of implementing or extending a language processor or weaver. This raises the necessity of an appropriate infrastructure for DSALs. This paper illustrates how the Reflex kernel for multi-language AOP allows for the definition of DSALs, by considering the implementation of a DSAL for advanced transaction management, KALA. We detail the implementation of KALA in Reflex, illustrating the ease of implementation of runtime semantics, syntax, and language translation

The study investigates the phonetic perception of language sounds. An account of the history of perceptual phonetics and the theoretical position of the subject as a specialist discipline is followed by an experimental study which derives psycho-physiological measures and acoustically evoked potentials and thus supports the assumption that both the general auditory processing mechanism and a special language processor are involved in the perception of sounds.

In this chapter and the next you’ll take a look under the hood of the FOO HTML generator that you’ve been using in the past few chapters. FOO is an example of a kind of programming that’s quite common in Common Lisp and relatively uncommon in non-Lisp languages, namely, language-oriented programming. Rather than provide an API built primarily out of functions, classes, and macros, FOO provides language processors for a domain-specific language that you can embed in your Common Lisp programs.

The idea for this session was prompted by the observation that there has been a decline in the number of papers on the subject of type systems research in the persistent object system community over recent years. In 1985 the first Persistent Object Systems workshop took place in Appin, Scotland, wholly on the theme of persistent data types. Since then the number of presentations in this workshop on the subject of type systems has steadily reduced, this year reaching zero. Does this signify such an increase in understanding that that there is little research left to be achieved? Or does the community no longer perceive such importance for the subject? Or perhaps the outstanding problems are either intractable, or at least too difficult for significant progress to be made.

Publisher Summary This chapter illustrates the concepts of programming language. A programming language is a way of creating a program for a computer, usually by typing instructions that can then be converted into the number codes that control the actions of the machine. These number codes are called machine code, and all of the actions of any program are carried out by machine code. The most obvious method of programming is to place into memory the number codes that are needed to carry out the action. Most languages, including BASIC, Pascal, Modula-2, and C, can be obtained in a compiled or an interpreted form. These high-level languages are powerful but inefficient. They allow turning problem-solving methods into programs that run smoothly but at a great cost in memory space. Whatever language one uses to express his program ideas, it has to be converted into machine code before it can be used in the computer. The language processor, invariably a compiler, converts the instructions of a program into machine code, and the computer can then execute this machine code. Furthermore, operating systems use job control languages to make the work of the computer user easier. Each system tends, however, to use a different name for its job control language, though the principle is the same—to write a file in ordinary ASCII codes that will control a set of actions.

MICROPASCAL is a system which permits the translatiion and execution of PASCAL programs on a TI 9900 microprocessor. Since the system is dedicated to teaching programming, it was designed to be extremely easy to use, whereas runtime efficiency was considered relatively unimportant. The total system occupies 12 k ROM.

This paper describes the fundamental concepts of the language processor generator MYLANG. The language machine in the classical automaton theory is used as the practical model. An algebra is introduced to handle the model easily, and a machine is constructed which can synthesize the model as an algebraic computation. As the algebra for the machine model, the semilinear algebra, i.e., an algebra close to the linear algebra on the language semiring is introduced. The hierarchy of the classes or machine models described by that algebra is examined. The machine model realizing the language processor generated by MYLANG and also realizing MYLANG itself are located at the highest hierarchy, and are constructed in a hierarchical way from the machine models in the lower classes. First, the multiple sequential-transducer system is given as the syntax-directed translator. Then some additional mechanisms are combined with this class of machines. Its generator is given as the class of machines of that kind. Finally, the attributes are introduced, and the class of machines aimed at is given as the attributed syntax-directed translator. Its generator is specified as the class of machines of that kind.

Numerically controlled (N/C) flame cutting machines have been extensively used in modern shipyards to cut steel plate according to a given contour. This paper presents a geometry description language CSBL‐1.0 to describe contours of shipbody parts. Its language processor is designed to interpret part programs in this language to generate N/C code for controlling the cutting machines. The part programmers coding in this language can essentially mimic the procedure of contour drawing. It is easy to learn and easy to use. Furthermore, part programs in this language are more comprehensive than the corresponding N/C numerical codes and hence they can be easily debugged and maintained. Also, coding in this language can essentially be relieved from mostly tedious and error‐prone geometrical calculations, which are rendered to the language processor. Techniques in automating these calculations are presented. Finally, some possible future extensions are discussed. This language, which has been field‐teste...