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Code-switching comes in three major sub-types: insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization. Turkish-Dutch code-switching is supposed to feature the first two types but not the third, because when the languages in contact are typologically distinct, there is not enough shared lexicon and structure to make the fine-grained integration of the two languages possible that is the basic requirement for congruent lexicalization. Recent data of third generation Dutch Turks, however, shows some instances of code-switching that do not rely as much on keeping the two languages separate as the prototypical instances of insertion and alternation do. This empirical development lends support to a theoretical approach to linguistics that makes use of an expanded definition of the lexicon. Many of the complex instantiations of code-switching qualify as both insertion and alternation, because the inserted unit is so large that it involves a complete switch to the other language at the same time.

Work on globalization has been concentrated on typical sites where features and phenomena are abundantly available: the huge contemporary metropolis with its explosive and conspicuous diversity in people and languages, its hyper-mobility and constant flux. Less typical places – peri-urban and rural areas, peripheral areas of countries, peripheral zones of the world, peripheral institutional zones where minorities are relegated – have been less quickly absorbed into current scholarship. Yet, upon closer inspection, there is no reason to exclude these `margins' from analyses of globalization processes and of their sociolinguistic implications. Globalization is a transformation of the entire world system, and it does not only affect the metropolitan centers of the world but also its most remote margins. Thus, we are bound to encounter globalization effects, also in highly unexpected places. A survey of these reifications of globalization at the margins will be the topic of this paper. We shall suggest a specific angle from which such forms of globalization in the margin can be most usefully addressed and we do so by drawing from examples taken from new media and communication technologies, from new forms of economic activity and, last but not least, from the perspective of legitimacy in the contentious struggle between commodification of language and the semiotic construction of authenticity.

This article develops an ethnographic approach to ‘linguistic landscapes’, applied to an inner-city neighborhood in Antwerp (Belgium). Linguistic landscapes are arrays of public signs, linguistic as well as non-linguistic, and range from shop windows and professional billboards to handwritten signs and announcements. An ethnographic approach to linguistic landscapes brings out the complexities of superdiverse arenas, such as those of inner-city Antwerp. In the neighborhood examined here, signs, index processes of demographic, social and economic change involving older residential immigrants moving up the social ladder because of new, real-estate and commercial opportunities created by the influx of more recent transient migrants as well as of more affluent native Belgian, inhabitants. We see how the use of languages, notably of a lingua franca, ‘oecumenical’ variety of Dutch, contributes to the perpetual shaping and re-shaping of an infrastructure for superdiversity: a space in which constant change and motion are the rule, in which complexity and unpredictability are rife, but within which important forms of conviviality are being articulated and sustained by means of language choice and language display.

In this paper, the on-going process of language policy-making in Suriname is dealt with using quantitative data obtained from students as well as teachers in primary and secondary schools. The Republic of Suriname is a former Dutch colony on the Caribbean coast of South America. Suriname shelters around 20 languages. Dutch is the official language since 1667, while Sranan is the local lingua franca among the various ethnic groups. The languages other than Dutch are restricted mainly to domestic and rural domains and they are hardly used in public institutions like schools. Most children acquire one or more languages in the home and are exposed to multiple other languages in society. Upon starting school they are submerged in Dutch-medium education. In line with Surinamese Ministry of Education's request, we carried out a country-wide home language survey with 22,643 students and 3785 teachers in primary and secondary education. The outcomes of the surveys are evaluated against the language policy discussi...

This article offers a critical take on the excessive use of psychological applications in the work sphere, that is, management techniques that open up the psyche of the individual employee to interceptions, evaluations, and manipulations by superiors. It builds upon existing work on the psychologization of labor under the aegis of human resource apparatuses and contributes to it by centralizing the role that confessions have in this process. The article details the careers of Fehim and Halil, both Turkish-Dutch officers working for a Dutch police agency. The field data, which have been obtained through an ethnographic fieldwork between 2008 and 2013, offer an insight into how psychological applications (such as personal development plans, “fireplace sessions,” empowerment courses, personality surveys, etc.) affect labor relations. The analysis opens up pathways for a better understanding of ethnic inequality in the workplace.

Twitter is becoming increasingly popular as a medium for language learning. This study explores self-directed learning via social interactions that use Twitter as an interactive learning environment. The participants in this study were thirty university students of Chinese as a foreign language at levels 1 and 2 of the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK). Prior to the Twitter activity they self-assessed their confidence on content topics and made plans to self-direct their learning for seven weeks. In addition, they all took part in a training session in which they were given written instructions on how to tweet in a group message-board setting. The data that were collected included students' responses to a motivation questionnaire before and after the Twitter activity (pre and post motivation), their tweets, their evaluation of the Twitter activity, and their learning achievement based on their scores in the final exam. The analysis of their tweets is related to the curriculum content and their Twitter (activity) plan. The results showed that the students created an interactive learning environment to practice their Chinese with their peers in active sentence constructions. Students' Twitter behavior and motivation for using Twitter to practice Chinese correlated significantly with their learning achievement. In addition, students became familiar with a range of choices to practice Chinese. However, half of them failed to follow the Twitter plan they had drawn up and only one-fifth of their tweets involved social interactions. Finally, barriers to and suggestions for future research on microblogging in the learning of Chinese are discussed.

The Chinese diaspora in the Netherlands is undergoing a dramatic diversification since the 1990s. This is manifested sociolinguistically in a shift from Cantonese and traditional character script to Mandarin and simplified characters as default registers of Chinese. Young people of Chinese heritage critically respond to and (re-) position themselves against these changes. This paper explores their identity work and language identifications and adopts a view from digital media to this end. Such a view provides insight into the unstable and shifting conditions and contexts of being, speaking and learning Chinese in the diaspora. Theoretically the paper builds on a view of language as practice, translanguaging, repertoires and linguistic citizenship, and revisits Heinz Kloss׳ notion of “ausbau” as a concept in language policy and planning. Applied to both language and identity, the revisited notion of ausbau is meant to capture the tension between language/identity as an individual, biographic project involving personal investment and planning, and language/identity as a social, historical project sponsored by nations and states (such as the PRC). In the discussion threads that are presented and analysed, both of these poles provoke critical reflection and stancetaking: critique and resistance to the hegemonic power of the PRC׳s language ausbau, and self-critique in the form of self-depreciating evaluation of personally accomplished language ausbau. This contribution draws on a recently completed two-year ethnographic study in and around a Chinese complementary school in the Netherlands as part of a larger funded project investigating discourses of inheritance and identities in four multilingual European settings.

This paper addresses the question how to analyze multimodal public discourse in such a way that the resulting reconstruction of the rhetor’s accountability either obliges the rhetor to acknowledge the argumentative reconstruction as valid or to refute its validity in a meta-discussion. This is a challenge for discourse theory as well as for argument theory because multimodal discourse seems far removed from the ‘standard’ propositional format of an argument. We argue that multimodal discourse should be analyzed as a coherent and relevant discourse, assuming the possibility of instant interactions between all modes. We introduce a method that allows us to account for an argumentative reconstruction in a systematic way. We illustrate our method by analyzing the ABC news item titled Hu Jintao Visit: Economics and Panda Bears of January 20, 2011, holding ABC news as a rhetor accountable for several far reaching standpoints that are implied in the multimodal format.

The present article deals with what we feel to be an unexplored path in present day sociolinguistics and a viable way toward making sociolinguistics more cognitive and cognitive linguistics more social. Naturally, sociolinguistics has a strong interest in issues of variation and change, variation being typically conditioned by social factors, such as age, gender, ethnicity as well as the discursive regimes of language use present in a community of practice. However, just like much of linguistics can be accused of not paying enough attention to the social (or communicative) side of language (cf. Croft 2009), sociolinguistics may be criticized for its relative lack of attention to cognition. We advocate that a true sociolinguistics should bridge this gap, and construct a theory about how social life influences cognitive knowledge. Against this background, we propose to combine a narrow linguistic notion of norm (Section 2) with a discourse-based one (Section 3) and we do so by portraying normativity as a process that operates on a range of elements that form a continuum of complexity. Our point here is that linguistic usage and discourse patterns are subject to the same normative pressures and regulations. First, both are sensitive to the purely cognitive effects of usage: entrenchment of what occurs commonly, leading to internal norms. Second, both are subject to external norms, as groups develop ‘ideologies’ about the way in which something should be done, in other words 'what is normal and what is not'. For some, this will support their own internal norm, but for others there may be a big discrepancy. And, finally, in both cases, is it ultimately up to the speaker (or ‘agent’) to follow the norms or not. We will illustrate this with two examples, one in the domain of traditional linguistics; the other taken from discourse-based linguistic ethnography.

While Turkish immigrants in Western Europe orient themselves to the norms of Standard Turkish, their Turkish is constantly being influenced by the European language they also speak. As a result of language contact, slowly but surely, new varieties of Turkish seem to be evolving, exhibiting loss of certain features and/or borrowing of words and structures taken from European languages. In this article, the focus is on Immigrant Turkish in the Netherlands, particularly on how it forms subordinate clauses. We compare data from the Netherlands and Turkey, with the data coming from two sources: spontaneous conversation and a sentence recall task. The main finding that both data sources converge on is that Dutch Turkish speakers clearly prefer to use finite subordinate clauses, especially in reported speech structures, and that this is a clear influence from Dutch. In Turkey, subordination is predominantly non-finite. The findings are interpreted in a usage-based perspective on contact-induced change.

While reading behaviour of adolescents is a frequent object of research, most studies in this field are restricted to a single country. This study investigates reading as a leisure-time activity across social groups from three regions differing in reading tradition as well as in the facilities available for reading. The authors analyse the reading behaviour of a total of 2,173 adolescents in the Netherlands, in Beijing (China), and in Cape Town (South Africa). Taking Icek Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour as a starting point, the authors adjusted it to model the three most important determinants of reading behaviour, namely (1) reading attitude; (2) subjective norms (implicit and explicit social pressure to read); and (3) perceived behavioural control, which includes reading proficiency and appropriateness of the available books (book supply). While they found the adjusted model to fit the Dutch and Beijing situation quite well, it appeared to be inappropriate for the Cape Town situation. Despite considerable cultural and situational differences between the Netherlands and Beijing, the results show a similar pattern for these two environments. The most important determinants turn out to be: the hedonic reading attitude, the implicit norm of family and friends, the attractiveness of the available choice of books, and the perceived reading proficiency.

This contribution takes a closer look at literacy competence-related problems in socially and culturally diverse classrooms. Diversity in language and reading socialization both contribute significantly to differences in literacy competences, which is something that surfaces in daily teaching practice. A survey among 169 primary and secondary school teachers in the Netherlands focused on the perspective of the teachers, since they are the ones who have to deal with the diversity in literacy. The extent of the problems the teachers indicated as being caused by their students’ lack of literacy competences is considerable in all classes. During their day-to-day teaching, teachers of multicultural classes experience more problems related to literacy competences than do teachers of monocultural classes. The results indicate that it is desirable if not vital to pay attention to the acquisition of literacy competences in diverse, multicultural classrooms in teacher training and refresher courses.

Dit is een ambitieuze doelstelling, niet alleen omdat het strafrechtssysteem een ingewikkeld stelsel van leerstukken is met veel lastige terminologie, maar ook – en daarover gaat dit themanummer – omdat de rechterlijke uitspraak het (voorlopig) sluitstuk is van een complex stelsel van teksten. Het is niet eenvoudig een uitspraak zo te schrijven dat een leek de intertekstuele relaties kan reconstrueren, laat staan de betekenis ervan kan interpreteren en beoordelen. Omdat niet veel mensen regelmatig strafrechtsvonnissen in hun geheel lezen, opent dit themanummer met een voorbeeld. We publiceren bijna integraal de ‘Runescape’ uitspraak van de Rechtbank Leeuwarden (LJN BG0939). Overigens is dit geen uitspraak die al helemaal conform de promis-modellen is opgemaakt, hoewel er vergeleken met een ‘traditioneel’ verkort vonnis wel al duidelijke invloeden zijn. In de tekst van de uitspraak zijn de meest relevante momenten waarop een relatie wordt gelegd naar een andere tekst gearceerd. Tussen vierkante haken wordt verwezen naar enkele korte commentaren. Paul van den Hoven

In 2003, the Amazigh (Berber) language and the Tifinagh script were, for the first time in history, introduced as a subject for all students in public primary schools in Morocco. This study first investigates the language planning policy behind the introduction of the new Amazigh curriculum: selection, codification, standardization, curriculum development and implementation in public primary schools. In order to successfully implement a new curriculum it is also important to have an understanding of the expertise, attitudes and concerns that teachers bring to their classroom. A survey of 132 teachers, complemented by in‐depth interviews and classroom observations revealed that teachers experienced many challenges in implementing the Amazigh curriculum, mainly due to preconditions like availability of materials and teaching time, familiarity of teachers and students with Amazigh and Tifinagh script, and the timing of the implementation of Amazigh at school.

After a brief introduction on regional and immigrant minority languages across Europe (1), we will deal with multilingualism and language rights (2). Next, we will go into the European discourse on foreigners and integration (3). Against this background, we will offer cross-national perspectives on community language teaching, derived from the findings of the Multilingual Cities Project on current practices in this domain in six major European cities and countries (4). In the final section, we will offer a reconciliation of the MCP outcomes with the current European discourse on trilingualism (5).

Contact between languages often leads to linguistic changes. Although the social factors and the typological characteristics of the languages influence the change process, the interaction between these factors is not well-known. This is partially due to the fact that the long-term and short-term effects of language contact are rarely brought together and compared systematically. In this study, we will outline a model of contact-induced change that combines synchronic usage with diachronic development through employing a usage-based approach. In addition, we argue against the separation of grammar from meaning and claim that the meaning of a form is a natural part of the change process it is involved in.

This paper presents a comparative ethnographic analysis of two versions of a grassroots text in Mandinka language, one written by a non-formally educated man, the other a respelling by a formally educated urbanite. The analysis points at a crucial difference in spelling practices and inequality in literacy regimes, i.e., between established orthographic English literacy and the more creative, heterographic and emergent local language literacy. It is shown how English orthography affects local ideologies of literacy as well as Mandinka spelling practices itself, in greater or lesser extent, depending on the educational history of the speller.

This meta-analysis examines the effects of family literacy programs on children’s literacy development. It analyzes the results of 30 recent effect studies (1990–2010), covering 47 samples, and distinguishes between effects in two domains: comprehension-related skills and code-related skills. A small but significant mean effect emerged ( d = 0.18). There was only a minor difference between comprehension- and code-related effect measures ( d = 0.22 vs. d = 0.17). Moderator analyses revealed no statistically significant effects of the program, sample, and study characteristics inferred from the reviewed publications. The results highlight the need for further research into how programs are carried out by parents and children, how program activities are incorporated into existing family literacy practices, and how program contents are transferred to parents.

In this study, data and discourses on immigrant minority groups and languages other than Dutch at home and at school are presented in order to contextualise the status of Turkish and Moroccan communities and their languages in the Netherland. Patterns of language use, choice and attitudes of Turkish (n = 63) and Moroccan (n = 64) youngsters in the Netherlands are documented and discussed. The findings of this study show that pride in one's socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds is not coupled with maintenance of the community language. Arabic and Berber informants report high attachment to their cultural backgrounds but their actual community language use is very restricted compared to their Dutch language use. They clearly shift to Dutch in most domains of language use. Turkish youngsters, on the other hand, show strong language maintenance patterns and their socio-cultural orientation is congruent with their language behaviour. While Moroccan youngsters identify more strongly with Islamic practices, ...

Argumentation is a cognitive category. Texts cannot be said to be argumentation, nor can argumentation be said to lie in texts. This is an almost trivial semiotic point of departure, but it is quite relevant nevertheless. In this contribution, three reasons are developed to emphasize and to articulate the semiotic component of argumentation to show that it is a crucial element that cannot be disregarded. Two of these reasons are mentioned only in passing as other contributions in this volume deal with them more substantially. The third reason, being that argumentation requires an exchange of discourse worlds and that consequently the mimetic construction of these discourse worlds is part of the argumentation, is discussed in some detail in this paper. It will be argued that a lack of attention for the mimetics of argumentation is regrettable, both theoretically and practically. Focusing on the mimetics raises questions concerning the dominant ‘propositional’ format of argumentation assumed to be essential for argumentative assessment.

Au Maroc, les langues sont l’objet des polémiques les plus passionnées. Ce livre s’inscrit ainsi dans la continuité du débat concernant les politiques linguistiques adoptées et met à jour les évolutions récentes du marché sociolinguistique après l’adoption de la nouvelle constitution, approuvée par référendum en juillet 2011 et qui a revu, entre autres, le statut des langues en présence.De quels statuts jouissent les langues au Maroc ? Quelles sont les changements récents en termes de politiques linguistiques ? Quelles sont les pratiques linguistiques dominantes ? Quelles sont les représentations qui leurs sont associées ? Autant de questions auxquelles ce livre essaie de répondre à travers l’analyse d’une enquête quantitative par questionnaire auprès d’environ 800 jeunes étudiants de plusieurs universités marocaines. Il questionne ainsi l’évolution des pratiques et des représentations langagières de ces jeunes à travers la comparaison de deux enquêtes, l’une menée entre 2000 et 2003 et l’autre, celle qui circonscrit les données de ce livre, menée de 2009 à 2012.

Cultural contacts between majority and minority groups involve many different aspects, one of which is language. Jews have been living in the Netherlands since around the beginning of the sixteenth century. In the two centuries that followed, their language repertoire was very rich, consisting of at least five different languages. As a result of processes of integration, speeded up by strongly pushed politics of assimilation pursued in line with the equality principle of the French revolution, Dutch Jews in the nineteenth century gave up using nearly all their original languages in favour of Dutch. The article describes these processes of language shift among Dutch Jews and poses the question whether the results of the acculturation process of the Jews going from being multilingual towards becoming monolingual are to be considered a success in terms of acculturation or a loss in terms of culture.

An analysis of the concept of freedom in the work of Hayek and his followers, with an alternative theory of freedom.

An analysis of the synergy between state ideologies - African socialism - and the development of Swahili language planning and effective language usage in Tanzania. This second edition is a thoroughly revised one, containing a radical makeover of the theoretical and conceptual framework of the earlier version, and adding new empirical materials to the analysis.

The article treats religious and secular fanaticism in the context of the rise of Islamic fundamentalist movements in the Netherlands.