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Background & Aims: Immune responses by CD8 T cells are essential for control of HBV replication. Although selection of escape mutations in CD8 T-cell epitopes has been previously described in HBV infection, its overall influence on HBV sequence diversity and correlation with markers of HBV replication remain unclear., Methods: Whole-genome sequencing was applied to HBV isolates from 532 patients with chronic HBV infection and high-resolution HLA class I genotyping. Using a Bayesian model (HAMdetector) for identification of HLA-associated mutational states (HAMs), the frequency and location of residues under CD8 T-cell selection pressure were determined and the levels of adaptation of individual isolates were quantified., Results: Using previously published thresholds for the identification of HAMs, a total of 295 residues showed evidence of CD8 T-cell escape, the majority of which were located in previously unidentified epitopes. Interestingly, HAMs were highly enriched in the HBV core protein compared to all other proteins. When individual HBV isolates were compared, different levels of adaptation to HLA class I immune pressure were noted. The level of adaptation increased with patient age and correlated with markers of replication, with low levels of adaptation in HBeAg-positive infection. Furthermore, the levels of adaptation negatively correlated with HBV viral load and HBsAg levels, consistent with high levels of HLA class I-associated selection pressure in patients with low replication levels., Conclusions: HBV sequence diversity is shaped by HLA class I-associated selection pressure with the HBV core protein being a predominant target of selection. Importantly, different levels of adaptation to immune pressure were observed between HBV infection stages, which need to be considered in the context of T-cell-based therapies., Impact and Implications: The immune response mediated by CD8 T cells plays a critical role in controlling HBV infection and shows promise for therapeutic strategies aimed at achieving a functional cure. This study demonstrates that mutational escape within CD8 T-cell epitopes is common in HBV and represents a key factor in the failure of immune control. Notably, the HBV core protein emerges as the primary target of CD8 T-cell selection pressure. Additionally, the observed correlation between HBV adaptation levels and viral replication markers indicates that CD8 T-cell immunity may influence transitions between phases of chronic HBV infection., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest TS, JP, MD, SG, DH, FMH, JLM, TL, CM, AK, ESA, CNH, DH, MM, RT, PH declare no conflict of interest. JT reports honoraria for lectures from AbbVie and GSK. AW has received grants for HCV genomic surveillance from Gilead Sciences. HB reports honoraria for lectures or presentations from AbbVie and Gilead Sciences, travel support from AbbVie and Gilead Sciences, and participates on advisory boards for AbbVie, Gilead Sciences, and Ipsen. MKM reports funding from Gilead Sciences for HBV immunology research and received consulting fees from Astrivax and Moderna. MC reports consulting fees from Gilead Sciences, AbbVie, MSD Sharp & Dohme, Falk Foundation, and is the medical CEO of the German Liver Foundation. JN reports grants from the German Research Council, the German Center for Infection Research, the Hector Foundation, and the German Cancer Aid. JSzW reports grants from EU Horizon 20/20, DZIF, DFG CRC1328. HW reports grants from Abbott, Biotest, consulting fees from Abbott, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Gilead Science, GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen, Roche Diagnostics International Ltd., Vir Biotechnology Inc. and honoraria from Biotest Ag and Gilead Science. HK reports grants from the German Center for Infection Research, EU Horizon Health, German Research Foundation, and internal Funds from Hannover Medical School and support for attending the International DeltaCure Meeting and EASL/AASLD Masterclass. GL reports funding from NIH. Please refer to the accompanying ICMJE disclosure forms for further details., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Multiple myeloma (MM) patients are at high risk of severe infections including COVID-19 due to an immune dysregulation affecting both innate and adaptive immune responses. However, our understanding of the immune responses to infection and vaccination in MM patients is limited. To gain more detailed insights into infection- and vaccine-elicited T cell immunity in MM, we studied the CD8+ T cell response on the single-epitope level in SARS-CoV-2 convalescent and mRNA-vaccinated MM patients., Methods: We compared peptide/MHC class I tetramer-enriched SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells and antibody responses in MM patients (convalescent: n = 16, fully vaccinated: n = 5, vaccinated convalescent: n = 5) and healthy controls (HCs) (convalescent: n = 58, fully vaccinated: n = 7) either after infection with SARS-CoV-2 alone, complete mRNA vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection and single-shot mRNA vaccination (hybrid immunity)., Results: MM patients have lower frequencies and a lower proportion of fully functional virus-specific CD8+ T cells compared to HCs, after both SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination. CD8+ T cell memory subset distribution in MM patients is skewed towards reduced frequencies of central memory (T CM ) T cells and higher frequencies of effector memory 1 (T EM1 ) T cells. In contrast, the humoral immune response was comparable in both cohorts after viral clearance. Notably, CD8+ T cell frequencies as well as the humoral immune response were improved by a single dose of mRNA vaccine in convalescent MM patients., Conclusions: MM patients have relative immunological deficiencies in SARS-CoV-2 immunity but benefit from hybrid immunity. These findings underline the relevance of vaccinations in this vulnerable patient group.

Introduction: More than 350 million people worldwide live with chronic viral hepatitis and are thus at risk for severe complications like liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). To meet the goals of the World Health Organization (WHO) global hepatitis strategy, there is an urgent need for new immunotherapeutic approaches. These are particularly required for chronic hepatitis B virus infection and - B/D coinfection., Areas Covered: This review summarizes data on mechanisms of CD8+ T cells failure in chronic hepatitis B, D, C and E virus infection. The relative contribution of the different concepts (viral escape, CD8+ T cell exhaustion, defective priming) will be discussed. On this basis, examples for future therapeutic approaches targeting virus-specific CD8+ T cells for the individual hepatitis viruses will be discussed., Expert Opinion: Immunotherapeutic approaches targeting virus-specific CD8+ T cells have the potential to change clinical practice, especially in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Further clinical development, however, requires a more detailed understanding of T cell immunology in chronic viral hepatitis. Some important conceptual questions remain to be addressed, e.g. regarding heterogeneity of exhausted virus-specific CD8+ T cells.

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Background & Aims: Liver transplant recipients (LTRs) demonstrate a reduced response to COVID-19 mRNA vaccination; however, a detailed understanding of the interplay between humoral and cellular immunity, especially after a third (and fourth) vaccine dose, is lacking., Methods: We longitudinally compared the humoral, as well as CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell, responses between LTRs (n = 24) and healthy controls (n = 19) after three (LTRs: n = 9 to 16; healthy controls: n = 9 to 14 per experiment) to four (LTRs: n = 4; healthy controls: n = 4) vaccine doses, including in-depth phenotypical and functional characterization., Results: Compared to healthy controls, development of high antibody titers required a third vaccine dose in most LTRs, while spike-specific CD8+ T cells with robust recall capacity plateaued after the second vaccine dose, albeit with a reduced frequency and epitope repertoire compared to healthy controls. This overall attenuated vaccine response was linked to a reduced frequency of spike-reactive follicular T helper cells in LTRs., Conclusion: Three doses of a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine induce an overall robust humoral and cellular memory response in most LTRs. Decisions regarding additional booster doses may thus be based on individual vaccine responses as well as evolution of novel variants of concern., Impact and Implications: Due to immunosuppressive medication, liver transplant recipients (LTR) display reduced antibody titers upon COVID-19 mRNA vaccination, but the impact on long-term immune memory is not clear. Herein, we demonstrate that after three vaccine doses, the majority of LTRs not only exhibit substantial antibody titers, but also a robust memory T-cell response. Additional booster vaccine doses may be of special benefit for a small subset of LTRs with inferior vaccine response and may provide superior protection against evolving novel viral variants. These findings will help physicians to guide LTRs regarding the benefit of booster vaccinations., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Immunization with two mRNA vaccine doses elicits robust spike-specific CD8 + T cell responses, but reports of waning immunity after COVID-19 vaccination prompt the introduction of booster vaccination campaigns. However, the effect of mRNA booster vaccination on the spike-specific CD8 + T cell response remains unclear. Here we show that spike-specific CD8 + T cells are activated and expanded in all analyzed individuals receiving the 3 rd and 4 th mRNA vaccine shots. This CD8 + T cell boost response is followed by a contraction phase and lasts only for about 30-60 days. The spike-specific CD8 + T memory stem cell pool is not affected by the 3 rd vaccination. Both 4 th vaccination and breakthrough infections with Delta and Omicron rapidly reactivate CD8 + T memory cells. In contrast, neutralizing antibody responses display little boost effect towards Omicron. Thus, COVID-19 mRNA booster vaccination elicits a transient T effector cell response while long-term spike-specific CD8 + T cell immunity is conserved to mount robust memory recall targeting emerging variants of concern., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Continuously emerging variants of concern (VOCs) sustain the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron/B.1.1.529 VOC harbours multiple mutations in the spike protein associated with high infectivity and efficient evasion from humoral immunity induced by previous infection or vaccination. By performing in-depth comparisons of the SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell epitope repertoire after infection and messenger RNA vaccination, we demonstrate that spike-derived epitopes were not dominantly targeted in convalescent individuals compared to non-spike epitopes. In vaccinees, however, we detected a broader spike-specific T-cell response compared to convalescent individuals. Booster vaccination increased the breadth of the spike-specific T-cell response in convalescent individuals but not in vaccinees with complete initial vaccination. In convalescent individuals and vaccinees, the targeted T-cell epitopes were broadly conserved between wild-type SARS-CoV-2 variant B and Omicron/B.1.1.529. Hence, our data emphasize the relevance of vaccine-induced spike-specific CD8 + T-cell responses in combating VOCs including Omicron/B.1.1.529 and support the benefit of boosting convalescent individuals with mRNA vaccines., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Patients with primary antibody deficiency are at risk for severe and in many cases for prolonged COVID-19. Convalescent plasma treatment of immunocompromised individuals could be an option especially in countries with limited access to monoclonal antibody therapies. While studies in immunocompetent COVID19 patients have demonstrated only a limited benefit, evidence for the safety, timing, and effectiveness of this treatment in antibody-deficient patients is lacking. Here, we describe 16 cases with primary antibody deficiency treated with convalescent plasma in four medical centers. In our cohort, treatment was associated with a reduction in viral load and improvement of clinical symptoms, even when applied over a week after onset of infection. There were no relevant side effects besides a short-term fever reaction in one patient. Longitudinal full-genome sequencing revealed the emergence of mutations in the viral genome, potentially conferring an antibody escape in one patient with persistent viral RNA shedding upon plasma treatment. However, he resolved the infection after a second course of plasma treatment. Thus, our data suggest a therapeutic benefit of convalescent plasma treatment in patients with primary antibody deficiency even months after infection. While it appears to be safe, PCR follow-up for SARS-CoV-2 is advisable and early re-treatment might be considered in patients with persistent viral shedding., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major global health burden causing severe complications like liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Curative treatment options are lacking. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new therapeutic options. Immunotherapy with the goal to restore dysfunctional HBV-specific T cell immunity is an interesting new therapeutic strategy. Based on current evidence on dysfunction of the HBV-specific CD8 + T cell response in chronic HBV infection, we will review the growing field of immunotherapeutic approaches for treatment of chronic HBV infection. The review will focus on therapies targeting T cells and will cover checkpoint inhibitors, T cell engineering, Toll-like receptor agonists and therapeutic vaccination., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background & Aims: Clinical manifestation of hepatic involvement in sarcoidosis can vary from asymptomatic disease to severe complications such as cirrhosis and portal hypertension. However, data on hepatic sarcoidosis are limited, and evidence-based recommendations are lacking. Our study aimed to assess the features and clinical course of hepatic sarcoidosis in a predominantly Caucasian cohort., Methods: We performed a retrospective study including all patients with hepatic sarcoidosis between 2004 and 2020 in 5 German centres. The median follow-up time was 36 months (range 0.0-195). Data on demographic parameters, clinical manifestations, diagnostic test results, treatment, and outcome were collected., Results: A total of 1,476 patients with sarcoidosis and 62 patients with hepatic involvement (4.2%) were identified. Of the patients, 51.6% were female, and 80.6% were Caucasian. Most patients were asymptomatic and were observed to have a cholestatic pattern of liver enzyme elevations. Cirrhosis was detected in 9 patients (14.5%), of whom 6 developed clinical manifestations of portal hypertension. Fifty-four patients were medically treated, most commonly with glucocorticoids (69.4%) or ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) (40.3%). Levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) decreased by 60.8% on average from baseline in patients treated with glucocorticoids and by 59.9% in patients treated with UDCA. Seventeen patients received treatment augmentation with a second line agent, of whom 8 patients normalised ALP levels during follow-up. None of the patients underwent liver transplantation or developed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Three of the patients died during follow-up owing to liver-related complications., Conclusions: Hepatic involvement in sarcoidosis was found in 4.2% of patients with sarcoidosis and was clinically significant in 14.5% of those. These findings highlight the importance of early identifying, monitoring, and treating hepatic sarcoidosis, given its increased mortality when associated with end-stage liver disease., Lay Summary: Clinical diagnostic and surveillance of hepatic involvement in sarcoidosis has not been standardised, and management of hepatic involvement is a clinical challenge, since it remains poorly characterised in many ways. Our results show that one-third of patients with hepatic sarcoidosis presented with clinically significant portal hypertension, 14.5% suffered from cirrhosis, and 3 patients died owing to liver-related complications. Regarding pharmacological treatment options, corticosteroids and UDCA were the medical agents most frequently used, and both of them have been shown to induce biochemical response in the majority of patients. These findings highlight the importance of correctly and early identifying hepatic involvement in sarcoidosis, because of the potentially progressive course of disease., Competing Interests: CG has received travel support from Gilead and speaking fees from AbbVie outside the submitted work. JMS is a consultant at BMS, Boehringer Ingelheim, Echosens, Genfit, Gilead Sciences, Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Madrigal, Nordic Bioscience, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi, and Siemens Healthcare GmbH. JMS also has received research funding from Gilead Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Siemens Healthcare GmbH. JMS has received speakers’ honoraria from Falk Foundation and MSD Sharp & Dohme GmbH all outside of the submitted work. CML has received speaker and consultancy fees outside the present work from AbbVie, Gilead, Falk, MSD, Novartis, Roche, and Eisai. JD has received research support from Gilead outside the submitted work. JV has received speaking and/or consulting fees from Abbott, AbbVie, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead, Medtronic, Merck/MSD, and Roche outside the submitted work. SZ has received speaking and/or consulting fees from AbbVie, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Falk, Gilead, Janssen, and Merck/MSD outside the submitted work. AP has received travel support from AbbVie and BMS and lecturer fees from AbbVie, BMS, and Gilead. All other authors declare no competing interests. Please refer to the accompanying ICMJE disclosure forms for further details., (© 2021 The Authors.)

SARS-CoV-2 spike mRNA vaccines 1-3 mediate protection from severe disease as early as ten days after prime vaccination 3 , when neutralizing antibodies are hardly detectable 4-6 . Vaccine-induced CD8 + T cells may therefore be the main mediators of protection at this early stage 7,8 . The details of their induction, comparison to natural infection, and association with other arms of vaccine-induced immunity remain, however, incompletely understood. Here we show on a single-epitope level that a stable and fully functional CD8 + T cell response is vigorously mobilized one week after prime vaccination with bnt162b2, when circulating CD4 + T cells and neutralizing antibodies are still weakly detectable. Boost vaccination induced a robust expansion that generated highly differentiated effector CD8 + T cells; however, neither the functional capacity nor the memory precursor T cell pool was affected. Compared with natural infection, vaccine-induced early memory T cells exhibited similar functional capacities but a different subset distribution. Our results indicate that CD8 + T cells are important effector cells, are expanded in the early protection window after prime vaccination, precede maturation of other effector arms of vaccine-induced immunity and are stably maintained after boost vaccination., (© 2021. The Author(s).)