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Funding Information: Conflicts of Interest: K.M.G., Y.-S.C. and S.-Y.C. report being part of an academic consortium that has received research funding from Abbott Nutrition, Nestle and Danone. K.M.G. and Y.-S.C. report receiving reimbursement for speaking at conferences sponsored by companies selling nutritional products. The other authors declared no conflict of interests. The funders had no role in the choice of research project, design of this study, data collection and statistical analyses, preparation of manuscript and decision to publish. Funding Information: Funding: The GUSTO cohort study was funded by the Singapore National Research Foundation’s Translational and Clinical Research (TCR) Flagship Programme and was administered by the Singapore Ministry of Health’s National Medical Research Council (NMRC), Singapore— NMRC/TCR/004-NUS/2008; NMRC/TCR/012-NUHS/2014. Additional funding was given by the Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore. KMG is supported by the UK Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12011/4), the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR Senior Investigator NF-SI-0515-10042), NIHR Southampton 1000DaysPlus Global Nutrition Research Group (17/63/154) and NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre (IS-BRC-1215-20004), the British Heart Foundation (RG/15/17/3174) and by the European Union (Erasmus+ Programme Early Nutrition eAcademy Southeast Asia-573651-EPP-1-2016-1-DE-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP and ImpENSA. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Childcare arrangements shape behavioural patterns that influence the risk of childhood obesity. However, little is known of its influence on childhood obesity in Singapore. We aim to examine the associations between childcare arrangements at the age of 5 years and childhood adiposity at age 6 years. Children from the GUSTO study were grouped into three childcare arrangements at age 5: Full-time centre-based childcare (FC), partial centre-based with parental care (PCP), and partial centre-based with non-parents (grandparents and domestic helpers) as caregivers (PCN). Diet, physical activity and sedentary behaviour information were collected at age 5, while anthropometric measurements were collected at age 6. Associations were analysed using multivariable regression models. Among 540 children, those in PCN had higher BMI z-scores (β: 0.34; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.66), greater sum of skinfold thicknesses (mm) (β: 3.75; 95% CI: 0.53, 6.97) and were 3.55 times (95% CI: 1.78, 7.05) more likely to be overweight/obese than those in FC. Adiposity measures in PCP children did not differ from those in FC. PCN children were reported to have more screen time and greater fast-food intake. Children in PCN tended to have higher adiposity measures. Greater engagement of non-parental caregivers should be considered in interventions targeting child obesity. publishersversion published

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Submitted by Maria da Luz Antunes (mluz.antunes@estesl.ipl.pt) on 2021-09-06T10:58:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 A retrospective study of orthoptic students' and teaching experience with the introduction of technology promoting a blended learning environment.pdf: 423176 bytes, checksum: 5f4d644743adf21e179d366957121826 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2021-09-06T10:58:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 A retrospective study of orthoptic students' and teaching experience with the introduction of technology promoting a blended learning environment.pdf: 423176 bytes, checksum: 5f4d644743adf21e179d366957121826 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-10 info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Introduction - Orthoptic education varies widely across the world, with countries offering hospital-based training courses whilst others offer bachelor or master level programs within the university sector. Purpose - To provide a description about Orthoptic Education across Europe; to identify the level of competency proficiency (CP) for different curriculum topics in Orthoptics. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Submitted by Maria da Luz Antunes (mluz.antunes@estesl.ipl.pt) on 2019-12-11T13:07:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Infantile esotropia_emergence of binocular function years after surgery.pdf: 311149 bytes, checksum: 1c33fc69ed50bde97c17f1ac1e53a536 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2019-12-11T13:07:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Infantile esotropia_emergence of binocular function years after surgery.pdf: 311149 bytes, checksum: 1c33fc69ed50bde97c17f1ac1e53a536 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-09 info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

20% a 30% das crianças em idade escolar apresentam algum tipo de perturbação visual. No processo de escolarização é requerido um exigente funcionamento da função visual e da visão binocular. O ato de ler requer a coordenação de um conjunto de processos visuais que enviam informação coordenada ao córtex visual. Se as anomalias da visão forem identificadas e tratadas precocemente, as consequências funcionais podem ser evitadas. A medição isolada da acuidade visual não traduz o desempenho do indivíduo na leitura. O reconhecimento de letras isoladas requer apenas uma área limitada do campo visual, enquanto o reconhecimento de palavras requer uma área maior. A leitura fluente necessita de áreas adicionais de campo visual à direita do ponto de fixação para orientação dos movimentos sacádicos. O comprometimento de funções como a acuidade visual, a sensibilidade ao contraste e o campo visual interfere com o processo de leitura. info:eu-repo/semantics/draft

Objective: Blurred images in full-field digital mammography are a problem in the UK Breast Screening Programme. Technical recalls may be due to blurring not being seen on lower resolution monitors used for review. This study assesses the visual detection of blurring on a 2.3-MP monitor and a 5-MP report grade monitor and proposes an observer standard for the visual detection of blurring on a 5-MP reporting grade monitor. Methods: 28 observers assessed 120 images for blurring; 20 images had no blurring present, whereas 100 images had blurring imposed through mathematical simulation at 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0mm levels of motion. Technical recall rate for both monitors and angular size at each level of motion were calculated. χ2 tests were used to test whether significant differences in blurring detection existed between 2.3- and 5-MP monitors. Results: The technical recall rate for 2.3- and 5-MP monitors are 20.3% and 9.1%, respectively. The angular size for 0.2- to 1-mm motion varied from 55 to 275 arc s. The minimum amount of motion for visual detection of blurring in this study is 0.4mm. For 0.2-mm simulated motion, there was no significant difference [χ2 (1, N=1095)51.61, p=0.20] in blurring detection between the 2.3- and 5-MP monitors. Conclusion: According to this study, monitors ≤2.3MP are not suitable for technical review of full-field digital mammography images for the detection of blur. Advances in knowledge: This research proposes the first observer standard for the visual detection of blurring. published

Lisbon School of Health Technology (ESTeSL) has been establishing partnerships with developing countries for the implementation of the Orthoptic degree. The first-degree program (BSc) was implemented in the University of Mindelo (School of Health), Saint Vicent in 2013. Purpose: This paper describes the role of an education degree in Orthoptics delivering public health for eye care to the community. Methods: throughout the four years, using WHO guidelines we planed that the orthoptic program should assume four basic functions of education, research, service delivery and policy design; five main partners have been identified: policy-makers, health managers, health professionals, academic institutions and communities; assistance has been provided to improve the skills and qualifications of the local educators and professional groups. N/A

O sentido da visão é crucial para o ser humano. As anomalias da função visual associam-se sempre a um impacto na qualidade de vida, com repercussões importantes a nível individual, familiar e socioeconómico. Na infância podem condicionar todo o desenvolvimento da criança, com consequências no desempenho escolar, nas escolhas profissionais e na probabilidade de aceder a um emprego com remuneração satisfatória. Ao nascimento, o sistema visual ainda se encontra em desenvolvimento. Patologias que condicionem alterações na qualidade e nitidez do estímulo luminoso que chega à retina podem alterar o normal desenvolvimento do sistema visual a nível cortical, causando diminuição da capacidade visual potencialmente irreversível – ambliopia. Embora exista uma plasticidade neuronal residual do sistema visual até cerca dos 10-12 anos, a efetividade de intervenções terapêuticas diminui drasticamente, em geral, a partir dos 6-7 anos. Desta forma, é consensual que a deteção e intervenção precoce das patologias oftalmológicas na infância é fundamental para evitar perda de visão irreversível, principalmente em idade pré-escolar. Assim, o Programa Nacional de Saúde Infantil e Juvenil integra as principais recomendações para avaliação da função visual em crianças, desde o nascimento até aos 18 anos, onde os Cuidados de Saúde Primários assumem um papel crucial. A acuidade visual corresponde à capacidade de visão dos detalhes, essencial para muitas tarefas quotidianas, como a leitura. A sua avaliação é fundamental e deve ser realizada sistematicamente, sobretudo aos 2-3 anos, aos 5 anos e aos 10 anos de idade da criança. Objetivo do estudo: Determinar a proporção de crianças (0-10 anos) com registo de acuidade visual nas consultas de vigilância de saúde infantil e juvenil, entre 2007 e 2015.

Background - Image blurring in Full Field Digital Mammography (FFDM) is reported to be a problem within many UK breast screening units resulting in significant proportion of technical repeats/recalls. Our study investigates monitors of differing pixel resolution, and whether there is a difference in blurring detection between a 2.3 MP technical review monitor and a 5MP standard reporting monitor. Methods - Simulation software was created to induce different magnitudes of blur on 20 artifact free FFDM screening images. 120 blurred and non-blurred images were randomized and displayed on the 2.3 and 5MP monitors; they were reviewed by 28 trained observers. Monitors were calibrated to the DICOM Grayscale Standard Display Function. T-test was used to determine whether significant differences exist in blurring detection between the monitors. Results - The blurring detection rate on the 2.3MP monitor for 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 mm blur was 46, 59, 66, 77and 78% respectively; and on the 5MP monitor 44, 70, 83 , 96 and 98%. All the non-motion images were identified correctly. A statistical difference (p

Purpose: To describe orthoptic student satisfaction in a blended learning environment. Methods: Blended learning and teaching approaches that include a mix of sessions with elearning are being used since 2011/2012 involving final year (4th year) students from an orthoptic program. This approach is used in the module of research in orthoptics during the 1 semester. Students experienced different teaching approaches, which include seminars, tutorial group discussions and e-learning activities using the moodle platform. The Constructivist OnLine Learning Environment Survey (COLLES ) was applied at the end of the semester with 24 questions grouped in 6 dimensions with 4 items each: Relevance to professional practice, Reflection, Interactivity, Tutor support, Peer support and Interpretation. A 5-point Likert scale was used to score each individual item of the questionnaire (1 - almost never to 5 – almost always). The sum of items in each dimension ranged between 4 (negative perception) and 20 (positive perception). Results: Twenty-four students replied to the questionnaire. Positive points were related with Relevance (16.13±2.63), Reflection (16.46±2.45), Tutor support (16.29±2.10) and Interpretation (15.38±2.16). The majority of the students (n=18; 75%) think that the on-line learning is relevant to students’ professional practice. Critical reflections about learning contents were frequent (n=19; 79.17%). The tutor was able to stimulate critical thinking (n=21; 87.50%), encouraged students to participate (n=18; 75%) and understood well the student’s contributions (n=15; 62.50%). Less positive points were related with Interactivity (14.13±2.77) and Peer support (13.29±2.60). Response from the colleagues to ideas (n=11; 45.83%) and valorization of individual contributions (n=10; 41.67%) scored lower than other items. Conclusions: The flow back and forth between face-to-face and online learning situations helps the students to make critical reflections. The majority of the students are satisfied with a blended e-learning system environment. However, more work needs to be done to improve interactivity and peer support.

Purpose: The aims of this study were to compare angle of deviation, fusional vergence measurements and fusion reserve ratio between esophoria and exophoria. Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed in children with best-corrected visual acuity of 0.0 LogMAR in either eye, compensated heterophoria within 10 prism dioptres (PD), full ocular rotations, presence of fusional vergence and stereopsis (60 seconds of arc or better). Fusional amplitudes were compared between angle of deviation (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 PD) in esophoria and exophoria. The fusion reserve ratio was calculated (to assess the effect of the underlying angle of deviation) as fusional convergence divided by prism alternating cover test measurements. Results: Two-hundred and eleven children (7.65±1.16 years) were recruited to this study. Exophoria was most common for near (n=181; 85.8%) and distance (n=20; 9.5%). Esophoria was present in 22 children for near (10.4%) and in 1 child for distance (0.5%). No significant differences were found between fusional amplitudes and angle of deviation for near (p>0.05). Children with exophoria of 10PD had a slight, but not, significant (p=0.264) increase in fusional convergence from 2PD (19.95±5.09) to 10PD (26.67±5.77). In esophoric children the variation of fusional convergence was smaller from 2P (25.00±0.00) to 10PD (22.50±3.54) and non significant (p=0.185). The fusion reserve ratio was significantly smaller in children with higher deviations (i.e. 10PD) for both esophoria (p=0.003) and exophoria (p>0.001). The fusion reserve ratio ranged between 12.50 (2PD) and 2.25±0.35 (10PD) for esophoria and between 9.98±2.55 (2PD) and 2.67±0.58 (10PD) for exophoria. Conclusions: Angle of deviation is not an efficient measure to predict fusional amplitudes. The fusion reserve ratio appears to be a better measurement to assess the effect of the underlying angle of deviation on fusional convergence. More studies are necessary to understand better the relationship between fusion amplitudes and angle of deviation.

The presence of microorganisms in ophthalmic instruments and surfaces can lead to the exposure of patients to several infections. However, there is no information regarding fungal and bacteria contamination in optical shops. This study aims to characterize fungi and bacteria contamination in air and surfaces from 10 optical shops covering also ophthalmic instruments. Air samples were collected through an impaction method onto malt extract agar (MEA) supplemented with chloramphenicol (0.05%) used for fungi and Tryptic Soy Agar (TSA) supplemented with nystatin (0.2%) used for bacteria. Outdoor samples were also performed to be used as reference. Surface and equipment’s swab samples were also collected side-by-side. All the collected samples were incubated at 27ºC for 5 to 7 days (fungi) or at 30º for 7 days (bacteria). Regarding fungal distribution, thirteen different species/genera were found in the air, being the most common Alternaria sp. (62.0%). Eight different species/genera were identified in the surfaces, ranging from 2 to 5x104 CFU/m2, being the most common A. versicolor complex and Penicillium sp. (40.0%). The trial frames were the most contaminated equipment, since 50.0% of the collected samples were with countless colonies. The airborne bacterial population indicated higher concentrations in the contactology office (average: 133 CFU/m3) than in the client’s waiting rooms (average: 126 CFU/m3). The surface samples indicated bacterial concentrations ranging from 2x104 to 1x106 CFU/m2, pointing out the automatic refractometer as the surface with higher bacterial load.

Aims and objectives Methods and materials Results Conclusion Personal information References, Aims and objectives: There are few professions in which visual acuity is as important as it is to radiologists [1]. The diagnostic decision making process is composed of a number of events (detection or observation, interpretation and reporting), where the detection...

Introduction - No validated protocol exists for the measurement of the prism fusion ranges. Many studies report on how fusional vergence ranges can be measured using different techniques (rotary prism, prism bar, loose prisms and synoptophore) and stimuli, leading to different ranges being reported in the literature. Repeatability of the different methods available and the equivalence between them it is also important. In addition, some studies available do not agree in what order fusional vergence should be measured to provide the essential information on which to base clinical judgements on compensation of deviations. When performing fusional vergence testing the most commonly accepted clinical technique is to first measure negative fusional vergence followed by a measurement of positive fusional vergence to avoid affecting the value of vergence recovery because of excessive stimulation of convergence. Von Noorden recommend using vertical fusion amplitudes in between horizontal amplitudes (base-out, base-up, base-in, and base down) to prevent vergence adaptation. Others place the base of the prism in the direction opposite to that used to measure the deviation to increase the vergence demand. Objectives - The purpose of this review is to assess and compare the accuracy of tests for measurement of fusional vergence. Secondary objectives are to investigate sources of heterogeneity of diagnostic accuracy including: age; variation in method of assessment; study design; study size; type of strabismus (convergent, divergent, vertical, cycle); severity of strabismus (constant/intermittent/latent).

Introdução – Na avaliação diagnóstica em mamografia, o desempenho do radiologista pode estar sujeito a erros de diagnóstico. Objetivo – Descrever a importância da perceção visual na análise da mamografia, identificando os principais fatores que contribuem para a perceção visual do radiologista e que condicionam a acuidade diagnóstica. Metodologia – Estudo descritivo baseado numa revisão sistemática de literatura através da PubMed e da Science Direct. Foram incluídos 42 artigos que respeitavam, pelo menos, um dos critérios de inclusão no estudo. Para a seleção das referências foi utilizada a metodologia PRISMA, constituída por 4 fases: identificação, seleção preliminar, elegibilidade e estudos incluídos. Resultados – Na avaliação diagnóstica em mamografia, a perceção visual está intimamente relacionada com: 1) diferentes parâmetros visuais e da motilidade ocular (acuidade visual, sensibilidade ao contraste e à luminância e movimentos oculares); 2) com condições de visualização de uma imagem (iluminância da sala e luminância do monitor); e 3) fadiga ocular provocada pela observação diária consecutiva de imagens. Conclusões – A perceção visual pode ser influenciada por 3 categorias de erros observados: erros de pesquisa (lesões não são fixadas pela fóvea), erros de reconhecimento (lesões fixadas, mas não durante o tempo suficiente) e erros de decisão (lesões fixadas, mas não identificadas como suspeitas). Os estudos analisados sobre perceção visual, atenção visual e estratégia visual, bem como os estudos sobre condições de visualização não caracterizam a função visual dos observadores. Para uma avaliação correta da perceção visual em mamografia deverão ser efetuados estudos que correlacionem a função visual com a qualidade diagnóstica., Saúde & Tecnologia, 2012: Temático 1: Cancro da mama - Uma abordagem multidisciplinar

RESUMO: Introdução – A insuficiência de convergência (IC) pode desencadear alterações da atenção visual. Pretende-se investigar se existem alterações na atenção visual em estudantes do ensino superior com IC. Metodologia – Estudo quantitativo, comparativo e correlacional. Participaram 44 estudantes com idades compreendidas entre os 18 e os 24 anos. Formaram-se dois grupos, um com Visão Binocular Normal (VBN) e outro com IC. O grupo com IC incluiu os indivíduos que apresentaram alterações no ponto próximo de convergência (PPC) e/ou na convergência para perto (C’). Para avaliar a atenção visual utilizou-se o teste de cancelamento de sinos. Resultados – O grupo com VBN foi composto por 32 indivíduos (23 do género feminino) e o grupo com IC por 12 indivíduos (11 do género feminino). No teste de atenção visual verificou-se que o número médio de sinos identificados foi de 34,6 para o grupo com VBN e de 34,3 no grupo com IC. O tempo médio de realização do teste foi de 167,9s e de 198,3s para os grupos de VBN e IC, respetivamente. Observou-se uma correlação moderada positiva entre o PPC e o tempo médio de realização do teste (r≈0,63) e uma correlação fraca positiva entre o número médio de sinos identificados e a C’ (r≈0,16). Por outro lado, a correlação entre o PPC e o número médio de sinos identificados (r≈-0,48) foi fraca negativa e entre a C’ e o tempo médio (r≈-0,05) foi ínfima negativa. Discussão/Conclusões – O grupo com VBN apresenta um número médio de sinos identificados superior ao grupo com IC. Verifica-se ainda que o grupo com IC demorou mais tempo na realização do teste, comparativamente com o grupo com VBN. Estes resultados apontam para uma possível relação entre a IC e a diminuição da atenção visual. ABSTRACT: Aims – The convergence insufficiency (CI) interferes with the ability to perform near activities. This study aims to investigate visual attention deficits in higher education students with CI. Methods – A cross-sectional study was developed. Forty-four students (n=44), from ESTeSL, with ages between 18 and 24 years old participated. The students were distributed in two groups, one with Normal Binocular Vision (NBV) and the other with CI. In CI group were included students with reduced: near point of convergence (NPC) and/or near fusional amplitude of convergence (C’). The bells cancellation test was used to evaluate visual attention. Results – Thirty-two students (n=32) were included in the NBV group (23 females and 9 males) and 12 were included in the CI group (11 females and 1 male). The average number of identified bells for the visual attention test was 34.6 for the NBV group and 34.3 for the CI group. The average time to complete the test was 167,9s and 198,3s for the NBV and CI groups respectively. A mild positive correlation between the NPC and the average time was found (r≈0.63). A weak positive correlation between the average number of identified bells and C’ (r≈0.16) was observed. On the other hand, weak negative correlations were found between the NPC and the average number of identified bells (r≈-0.48) and between the average time and C’ (r≈-0.05). Discussion/Conclusion – The NBV group presents a higher average of identified bells than the CI. The students from the CI group took more time to complete the test when compared to the NBV group. These results point to a possible decreasing of visual attention induced by CI.

O processo de envelhecimento fisiológico é marcado por um decréscimo das capacidades motoras, redução da força, flexibilidade, função visual, entre outros. Adicionalmente, alterações patológicas do sistema visual com impacto na função visual podem alterar o equilíbrio e aumentar o risco de quedas. Os indivíduos com idade ≥ 50 anos representam entre 65% a 82% dos casos de baixa visão e cegueira. O risco de quedas é superior em mulheres com acuidade visual ≤0,5. Objectivo do estudo: avaliar a relação entre a função visual e o risco de quedas.

Assessing the range of vergence provides information about the patient’s ability to maintain the binocular vision. Disparity vergence measurements should be used to quantify control of an underlying eye misalignment. In the presence of a manifest deviation the testing is performed by first compensating the angle of deviation to determine prognosis. Type of deviation: a) in an exophoria there is an increase in the fast fusional convergence while in an esophoric deviation there is an increase in reflex fusional divergence to attain binocular single vision; b) convergence fusion amplitudes have been found to correlate with control of the exodeviation; c) there is a greater BO range for esos and greater BI range for exos.

O objectivo deste estudo foi avaliar as condições de iluminância das actividades desenvolvidas por espeleólogos expostos a ambiente de grutas. Foi realizado um estudo descritivo transversal. Foram avaliados os níveis de iluminância das actividades desenvolvidas por 16 espeleólogos, em duas duas grutas desprovidas de iluminação natural. A idade média dos trabalhadores foi de 40,65 (±10,93) anos. No ambiente de gruta a maioria dos trabalhadores utilizava uma lanterna instalada no capacete (451,0±305,7lux). Não foram detectados sinais e sintomas de patologias visuais ligados à exposição do ambiente gruta. Os sinais de iluminância são adequados para a maioria das actividades realizadas.

Purpose: a) multiply handicapped children have a high incidence of disorders affecting the visual system; b) assessment and management of visual disorders in this group of children presents a complex challenge; c) this study describes the results of visual function assessment in two children with neurological disability over a one-year period.

Se desarrolló un estudio descriptivo con el objetivo de evaluar el rendimiento escolar así como tipos de errores en la lectura en niños con alteraciones de la función visual. En el estudio participaron 672 niños del Municipio de Lisboa (7.69±1.19 años): grupo de control (función visual normal=562) y grupo experimental (alteraciones da función visual=110). Se cuestionaron 34 profesores acerca del rendimiento escolar y lectura a través de un cuestionario validado (α=0,91). Para la evaluación en la lectura se empleó la prueba de lectura de 34 palabras sueltas. Los niños con la función visual alterada mostraron niveles más bajos de rendimiento escolar. Estaban en el nivel "negativo" del 10,9% de los niños con la función visual alterada y sólo del 5,3% de los niños con la función visual normal. Estos niños comenten más errores en la lectura (p

Speleologist’s perform their activity in demanding visual conditions of very low luminance - many visual tasks involve resolution of detail under conditions of low contrast. Work related conditions in a cave as exposure to heat, chemicals, dust and poor lighting conditions could influence the integrity of the visual system and predispose the eye to diseases that eventually affect vision. Poor lighting conditions cause a variety of symptoms of visual discomfort and may increase the risk of accidents. Good visual acuity is crucial for several and has an important role for safety purposes. The aim of this study was to evaluate lighting conditions and optical filters effects on visual performance in speleologists exposed to cave environments.

Computer Vision Syndrome (CSV): 1) Conjunto de complicações desencadeadas com o acto de fixação para perto, que são experimentadas durante ou após o uso do computador; 2) Distúrbio caracterizado pelo esforço repetitivo de perto traduzindo-se em sintomas oculares e não oculares. Pertinência do estudo: os trabalhadores de telecomunicações desempenham actividades prolongadas de fixação para perto, o que pode originar queixas de fadiga visual devido ao stress exercido sob a convergência acomodativa. Objectivos do estudo: 1) Identificar quais os parâmetros da visão binocular que são mais influenciados pelo uso prolongado do computador; 2) Comparar a visão binocular em dois grupos de indivíduos com e sem sintomatologia ocular.

A retinopatia diabética é a principal causa de deficiência visual e cegueira em adultos com mais de 20 anos em países industrializados. A esperança de vida e os hábitos alimentares são fatores que nas últimas décadas têm vindo a sofrer alterações. É pertinente questionarmos de que forma estes fatores influenciam a prevalência da retinopatia diabética. Objetivos do estudo: 1) Descrever o impacto do aumento da esperança de vida e da mudança dos hábitos alimentares na prevalência da retinopatia diabética nos países industrializados; 2) Identificar estratégias de ação para a prevenção e a deteção precoce da retinopatia diabética.