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This paper presents the process of drafting the country report on the state of forest genetic resources of the Republic of Serbia. The report was drawn up for the needs of the Second Assessment on the State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (UN FAO).The paper presents an overview of the objectives, methodology, sustainability of results, and contribution of the country report to the forest and nature protection sector, as well as the integration of national policies into international initiatives for the conservation of forest genetic resources. The country report contains 32 recommended activities as future steps to improve the situation in the field of conservation of forest genetic resources and meet the needs for capacity building and further research. The recommended activities are grouped into opportunities. Each opportunity is defined as a response to the challenges of all aspects of the conservation of forest genetic resources. All recommendations are defined to suit forest owners and users, who can integrate the conservation of forest genetic resources into forest management.

Due to intense ash dieback, this research tested the bioactivity of Thymus vulgaris, Lavandula angustifolia, and Cupressus sempervirens essential oils (EO) against Hymenoscyphus fraxineus. In vitro testing showed that EOs had a pronounced fungitoxic effect on H. fraxineus. The most effective EO was extracted from T. vulgaris, while EOs obtained from L. angustifolia and C. sempervirens were less effective and showed the same effect. At a concentration of 1%, all tested EOs inhibited mycelial growth, while 0.01% and 0.1% concentrations of EO extracted from T. vulgaris also inhibited the growth of H. fraxineus. The in planta test of EO extracted from T. vulgaris conducted on three‐year‐old Fraxinus angustifolia seedlings showed a reduction in the size of necrotic lesions and a better crown condition compared to untreated seedlings. This research demonstrates, for the first time, the efficiency of EOs in suppressing ash dieback making a path for the development of new biological protection measures against H. fraxineus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the beginning of the research on the characteristics of albino beech in the Central Serbia region. The studied beech is perennial, of sprout origin, fruitful, and most likely parasitic on the parent tree, considering that its lack of chlorophyll renders it unable to feed and grow on its own. By measuring the physical characteristics of common and albino beeches that share the same root system, and by comparing the length and width of their leaves, the obtained results show that the leaves of albino beech are noticeably smaller. The average length of leaves of common beech is 7.19 cm, while the average length of leaves of albino beech is 6.08 cm. The average width of leaves of common beech is 3.83 cm, whereas the average width of leaves of albino beech is 3.35 cm. To achieve transpiration as a basic physiological function of any tree form, albinism causes significant weakening of the maximum strength and sap during water transport. Additionally, since the leaf is deprived of any of the essential pigments - chlorophyll (a, b, c, d), anthocyanin, carotene - this results in dwarf growth or the formation of bush-like forms of trees. For genome sequencing, it is planned to take samples of leaves with and without pigment and preserve them in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -195℃ in special canister freezers with liquid nitrogen. The view on the phenomenon and the potentially still unrecognized mechanisms of functioning of the plant itself, as well as the plants around it, fungi associated with its root system, or even the discovery of a completely new network or system of connections, remains to be uncovered. What enables the nutrition and influx of basic sugars into this plant may be revealed through the sequencing of its entire genome, which is a basic, logical, and one of the first steps to be taken. The exact location of the plant is kept confidential at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the Republic of Serbia is one of the six European and 153 world centers of biological diversity. It is one of the most important regions of biological diversity in Europe because it is characterized by great genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. The great species diversity of this area is shaped by the geographical position and the diversity of ecologically different habitats. The main characteristic of the Serbian flora is the emphasized endemism and the highland areas dwelling. Negative activities in the past have contributed to the reduction in the number of certain plant species as well as their disappearance, which have led to disorder of the whole ecosystem. In situ and ex situ conservation methods are used to preserve the most valuable parts of nature, populations and individual species, and genes. The in situ (on-site) conservation implies the continuous maintenance of populations in an environment where they have naturally developed. The positive effect of the in situ conservation reflects through3 the preservation of the ecosystem as a whole and not only the individual species or genes that are the subject of protection. By establishing the in situ conservation the preservation of other plant and animal species inhabiting the preserved area can be achieved. The in situ is a desirable form of the conservation of the forest genetic resources because it allows the evolutionary processes to take place in the involved populations. The selection and the registration of seed stands is the most commonly used method for the in situ conservation of the forest genetic resources in Serbia. According to the data from the current Register of Seed Facilities published by the Forest Administration, the department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection of the Republic of Serbia, on the total area of 1,842.89 ha in Serbia were separated 126 seed stands, of which 44 stands of coniferous species, 81 stands of herbaceous species and one mixed seed stand. Protected natural assets represent a significant form of in situ conservation of the forest genetic resources because they contain large areas of forest complexes. Currently, the protected areas cover 575,310 ha, or 6.51% of the territory of Serbia. Under protection are 461 areas (November 2015): 5 national parks, 17 nature parks, 20 landscapes of extraordinary characteristics, 68 special nature reserves, 3 protected habitats, 310 monuments of nature, and 38 areas of cultural and historical significance. The ex situ (off-site) conservation of the forest genetic resources implies the maintenance of populations and individuals of different species of trees outside their natural habitat. The most common ways of the ex situ conservation in Serbia are seed plantations, provenance tests, clonal archives, living archives and genetic collections.

In light of the increase of environmental pollution, we tested the effect of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) soil contamination on ash dieback. The experiment included the inoculation of Hymenoscyphus fraxineus on Fraxinus excelsior and Fraxinus angustifolia seedlings growing on unpolluted soil, soil contaminated with cadmium (Cd), and soil contaminated with lead (Pb). At the end of the experiment, 173 days after soil contamination and 50 days since inoculation, all F. excelsior and F. angustifolia seedlings inoculated with H. fraxineus showed ash dieback symptoms in comparison to their control groups. However, both F. excelsior and F. angustifolia seedlings grown on contaminated soil had significantly increased necrotic lesions in comparison to the seedlings grown on uncontaminated soil. Our results showed for the first time that cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) soil contamination can significantly contribute to ash dieback and increase damage to F. excelsior and F. angustifolia seedlings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mixed forest of fir, spruce, and beech (Piceo-Abietetum Čolić 1965) is an important and widespread plant community on the Balkan Peninsula. Within the Dinarides, it occupies the upper zone of the beech-fir forest belt, establishing a regional belt of vegetation in the Illyrian province. This community occupies significant areas in western and southwestern Serbia where it also creates a regional belt, thus confirming that this part of Serbia belongs to the Illyrian floral-geographical province. This paper compares the floristic composition of the fir-spruce-beech forests in Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina in order to determine the differences between the study stands. A total of 29 relevés were analyzed, 17 from the mountain of Lisina (Bosnia-Herzegovina) and 12 from the Pešter plateau (Serbia). Cluster analysis revealed a clear differentiation between the study stands and species in Bosnia-Herzegovina and those in Serbia. The main difference is in the dominant species: Fagus moesiaca (K. Maly) Czecz. in Serbia and Fagus sylvatica L. in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, the forest grows under conditions of a uniform, maritime and humid climate, while in Serbia it grows under conditions of a continental climate with less rainfall and a strong zoo-anthropogenic impact. Regarding the spectrum of life forms, there are more phanerophytes and geophytes in Bosnia-Herzegovina than in Serbia. On the other hand, the spectrum of floral elements in Serbia is richer in xerophilous, Balkan and sub-Mediterranean floral elements.

The aim of this research was to examine the influence of acorn size on morphological characteristics of one-year-old Northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings. The quality of seedlings correlates with the quality of the seed they are derived from. In species with large seeds, as in the case of Northern red oak, the seedling growth in the first growing season is closely related to seed size or the amount of reserve nutrients that are stored in the seed. The height and root collar diameter of one-year-old Northern red oak seedlings increases with increase in acorn size. The results obtained in this research can be used as a guideline for acorn grading, because they show that improved Northern red oak seedlings quality can be achieved using seeds of appropriate size. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. TR 31070: The development of technological procedures in forestry with a view to an optimum forest cover realization]

This paper presents the results of analysis of the genetic variability of seven Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) populations in Serbia using SSR markers. Genomic DNA was isolated from seed tissue of all seven populations. The concentration of DNA samples was within the range of 1-4 mg/ml. Different PCR protocols were used depending on the type of SSR markers. The total number of fragments obtained by SSR analysis with 4 selected primers was 17 (only bands of strong and medium intensity were considered), of which 6 fragments were polymorphic (35.29%). In order to analyze the genetic similarity of the analyzed populations, graphs of correspondence analysis and UPGMA clusters were produced. By comparative analysis of the obtained dendrograms, the dependence of population genetic differentiation and spatial distance was observed, i.e. their isolation by natural barriers. The results indicate that in further research of interpopulation variability it is necessary, when graphically interpreting genetic distances, to use both methods of statistical analysis (UPGMA analysis and correspondence analysis). [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. TR 31070: The development of technological procedures in forestry with a view to an optimum forest cover realization]

During the last several years, a significant decline of different forests in Serbia was recorded. The decline is more widespread in conifer stands, but occurence of decline was recorded in broadleaved forest stands as well. These declines are the result of abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors. According to the studies performed so far in Serbia, the predisposing factor were droughts during the 2012 and 2013 vegetation periods that caused physiological weakness of the trees. Among the biotic factors, the most important are fungi (mainly root rot, but rot fungi, and needle diseases) and insects (bark beetles in conifer species) and defoliators in broadleaved species). [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. TR 37008 i br. TR 31070]

Lavadinović V., Isajev V., Rakonjac L., Popović V., Lučić A.: Douglas-fir provenance phenology observations. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 32, No. 4, p. 376-382, 2013.

Isajev V., Lavadinović V., Lučić A., Rakonjac L.J.: Serbian spruce (Picea omorca /Panc./ Purkyne) variability in the artificial populations in Serbia. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 277-282, 2013. A great part of the genetic variation and the potentials of Serbian spruce natural populations have been incorporated in several plantations in the Western Serbia at the site Quercetum fraineto-cerris s.l., Salicetum fragillis s.l and Pinetum nigre s.l. and in other similar occurrences In this way, it becomes much more available for the research and future utilization. The intensive research of the plantations started by the classification of trees into phenogroups which were considered to be significant for forestry and horticulture. The differences between flowering years, plantations and individual trees in the regularity and abundance of micro- and macro-strobiles are major indicators f genetic variability in the reproductive cycle of Serbian spruce. The interaction of environmental characteristics and genotypes of extreme and average trees illustrate the reproductive ability of Serbian spruce on different sites and indicates that this species achieves the coenological and not the ecological optimum at its natural sites. Application of genetic/selection programmes can lead to the production of planting stock of desired and defined properties, which could survive the stress environmental factors, thanks to its morphological and physiological properties.

The paper reviews the study results of the use of molecular markers in coniferous tree species improvement. The results are based on presentation of the experience in the application of biochemical and molecular analyses at the level of the selected populations and individuals from different provenances of coniferous tree species. Many studies performed during the last years demonstrated the usefulness of neutral molecular markers in the field of conservation and population genetics of conifers, in particular to understand the importance of migration patterns in shaping current genetic and geographic diversity and to measure important parameters such as effective population size, past bottlenecks and gene flow. This is relevant to design conservation strategies but is of little value to understand the adaptability patterns. In the specific field of the conservation genetics, molecular markers can be extremely useful in both ex situ and in situ gene pool conservation of coniferous trees.

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The analyses of morphological seed traits of Turkish hazel have been performed in the marginal part of its natural range for the purpose of familiarizing with the variability of its natural populations. In September 2020, the seeds were collected in one cultivated and seven natural populations of Turkish hazel for the purpose of research. The inter-population variability was determined based on five measured morphometric parameters and one derived ratio. Nut length ranges from 15.24 to 17.76 mm, width from 14.17 to 15.80 mm, thickness from 10.92 to 12.38, and weight from 1.23 to 1.45 g. The obtained results showed the presence of significant variability of morphological seed traits and indicated high phenotypic variability of the researched traits and genetic differentiation of Turkish hazel populations in Serbia. The Južni Kučaj population has the largest nuts, so it can be recommended as a future seed source. The Sokolovica population has the smallest nuts. The highest variability was determined in the populations of Vukan-Krilaš and Divčibare. Therefore, the selection of these two populations for seed facilities has been confirmed as right in the conducted analyses. The results of the analysis of variance showed statistically significant differences among the researched populations for all observed traits. The available gene pool of Turkish hazel is characterized by a satisfactory degree of genetic variability, representing a good starting point for the further breeding process. The studied populations must be included in continuous conservation and breeding processes, especially by forms of in situ and ex situ conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of research on the influence of climatic factors on the occurrence of defoliation and decline of forests as a final outcome. The research was conducted in a mixed beech and fir forest, in the period from 2004 to 2019 at sample plot 415 - Maljen, as a representative example of forest decline, which is part of regular monitoring conducted on the territory of the Republic of Serbia. Due to the fact that defoliation may be due to the influence of various factors, research, analysis and results are focused on long-term trends. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the degree of influence of climatic parameters on the occurrence of defoliation. Data on temperatures and precipitation in the period 2004-2019 were processed and analyzed on a monthly and annual basis, as well as in the vegetation period, for the main meteorological station Valjevo, which is closest to sample plot 415. Also, drought assessment was performed during this research period based on Lang's rain factor, de Martonne aridity index and climate diagram by Walter. In order to confirm these methods, the Standardized Precipitation Index was calculated as one of the method that has been mostly used in drought identification lately. It was stated that the defoliation of trees was initiated by extreme climatic events during three consecutive drought years (2011-2013), after which there was the largest decline of forests in the researched area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serbian spruce (Picea omorika /Panč./ Purkyne) is rare and endangered tertiary relict and endemic species in the Balkan Peninsula. Its natural distribution is fragmented and restricted to western Serbia and eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, mainly in the canyon of middle course of the Drina river. Since the mid-19th century, the number and size of populations have been steadily decreasing accompanied by a decline in the number of mature individuals, endangering natural regeneration is endangered. The objective of this study is to determine variability within Serbian spruce (Picea omorika /Panč./ Purkyne) natural population in the canyon of the Mileševka river on the basis of morphological and anatomical characteristics of needles and, thus, to broaden knowledge on this rare and endangered species. Twigs with needles collected from all mature individuals that represent the population were used as material for the study. The following morphological and anatomical characteristics were measured: NL- needle length; NH - needle height; NW - needle width; CT+EH - cuticle + epidermis height; HH - hypodermis height; VB - vascular bundle diameter; No of SC - number of resin channels; SC diameter - resin channel diameter. The average values of the measured characteristics are: needle length 13.23 mm; needle width 1239.93 m; needle height 608.63 m; cuticle + epidermis height 11.49; hypodermis height 17.59 m; vascular bundle diameter 220.64 m; number of resin channels 0.74; resin channel diameter 52.36 m. The characteristics with the highest variability are as follows: number of resin channels (161.64%); resin channel diameter (25.35%); hypodermis height (20.79%), while the needle width is a characteristic with the lowest variability (6.39%). The results of the analysis of variance showed very high statistical differences within population for all studied characteristics (p<0.01; a=0.05). In order to make the results clearer, it is necessary to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure by analyzing various phenotypic characteristics in specially designed experiments (e.g. progeny tests) as well as by analyzing appropriate DNA markers. The studied population must be involved in continuous conservation and breeding processes, especially through appropriate forms of ex situ conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]