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SUMMARY: Plasmodesmata (PD) are nanochannels that facilitate cell‐to‐cell transport in plants. More productive and photosynthetically efficient C4 plants form more PD at the mesophyll (M)‐bundle sheath (BS) interface in their leaves than their less efficient C3 relatives. In C4 leaves, PD play an essential role in facilitating the rapid metabolite exchange between the M and BS cells to operate a biochemical CO2 concentrating mechanism, which increases the CO2 partial pressure at the site of Rubisco in the BS cells and hence photosynthetic efficiency. The genetic mechanism controlling PD formation in C3 and C4 leaves is largely unknown, especially in monocot crops, due to the technical challenge of quantifying these nanostructures with electron microscopy. To address this issue, we have generated stably transformed lines of Oryza sativa (rice, C3) and Setaria viridis (setaria, C4) with fluorescent protein‐tagged PD to build the first spatiotemporal atlas of leaf pit field (cluster of PD) density in monocots without the need for electron microscopy. Across leaf development, setaria had consistently more PD connections at the M‐BS wall interface than rice while the difference in M‐M pit field density varied. While light was a critical trigger of PD formation, cell type and function determined leaf pit field density. Complementary temporal mRNA sequencing and gene co‐expression network analysis revealed that the pattern of pit field density correlated with differentially expressed PD‐associated genes and photosynthesis‐related genes. PD‐associated genes identified from our co‐expression network analysis are related to cell wall expansion, translation and chloroplast signalling. Significance Statement: The important roles of plasmodesmata (PD) in plant biology present opportunity to improve crop performance but need more knowledge on the genetic control of PD formation to be realised. Here, we use unique bioimaging tools to understand PD formation during monocot leaf development in the context of photosynthesis, and identify potential genes involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brassica napus L. plants are sensitive to water stress conditions throughout their life cycle from seed germination to seed setting. This study aims at identifying quantitative trait loci (QTL) linked to B. napus tolerance to water stress mimicked by applications of 10% polyethylene glycol-6000 (PEG-6000). Two doubled haploid populations, each consisting of 150 genotypes, were used for this research. Plants at the two true leaf stage of development were grown in the absence (control) or presence (stress) of PEG-6000 under controlled environmental conditions for 48 h, and the drought stress index was calculated for each genotype. All genotypes, along with their parents, were genotyped using the Brassica Infinium 90K SNP BeadChip Array. Inclusive composite interval mapping was used to identify QTL. Six QTL and 12 putative QTL associated with water stress tolerance were identified across six chromosomes (A2, A3, A4, A9, C3, and C7). Collectively, 2154 candidate genes for water stress tolerance were identified for all the identified QTL. Among them, 213 genes were identified as being directly associated with water stress (imposed by PEG-6000) tolerance based on nine functional annotations. These results can be incorporated into future breeding initiatives to select plant material with the ability to cope effectively with water stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complex interplay between primary and secondary growth processes in trees holds paramount significance in unraveling the physiological connections within distinct tree tissues. In this study, we continuously monitored the intra-annual radial growth of Pinus koraiensis, Quercus mongolica, and Betula platyphylla in Changbai Mountain of northeast China using microcore techniques from April to September 2021. Additionally, we used existing leaf phenology models to simulate the seasonal variations of leaf area of three species. Our results revealed substantial difference in radial growth dynamics and leaf expansion patterns among the different wood species. Notably, a synchronization between leaf expansion and radial growth was observed in certain phases for pine and birch, with a significant positive correlation between the rates of leaf expansion and radial growth. Conversely, oak exhibited no synchrony between leaf development and radial growth. Temporal disparities between cambial phenology and leaf phenology were observed. Specifically, for pine, leaf unfolding occurred prior to the onset of wall-thickening, while leaf shedding took place after the cessation of lignification. Oak exhibited a delayed leaf unfolding compared to the initiation of secondary wall formation, and leaf shedding notably occurred later than the cessation of radial growth. In contrast, birch displayed an earlier leaf unfolding in comparison to the onset of radial growth, and the cessation of lignification was later than leaf shedding. These findings indicate the diversity in physiological mechanisms and survival strategies among different wood species. Our results suggest that radial growth in pine and birch appears to be heavily reliant on photosynthetic activity of leaves, while oak places greater emphasis on carbon storage, particularly during early growing season. The findings provide new insights into the complex mechanisms of tree growth and are critical for predicting future species suitability in temperate forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The components of the mediator kinase module are highly conserved across all eukaryotic lineages, and cyclin‐dependent kinase 8 (CDK8) is essential for correct cell proliferation and differentiation in diverse eukaryotic systems. We show that CDK8 couples leaf development with the establishment of correct stomata patterning for prevailing CO2 conditions. In Arabidopsis, the basic helix‐loop‐helix (bHLH) transcription factor SPEECHLESS (SPCH) controls cellular entry into the stomatal cell lineage, and CDK8 interacts with and phosphorylates SPCH, controlling SPCH protein levels and thereby also expression of the SPCH target genes encoding key regulators of cell fate and asymmetric cell divisions. The lack of the CDK8‐mediated control of SPCH results in an increased number of meristemoid and guard mother cells, and increased stomata index in the cdk8 mutants. Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations trigger a developmental programme controlling cell entry into stomatal lineage by limiting the asymmetric divisions. In cdk8, the number of meristemoids and guard mother cells remains the same under ambient and high CO2 concentrations, as the accumulated levels of SPCH caused by the lack of CDK8 appear to override the negative regulation of increased CO2. Thus, our work provides novel mechanistic understanding of how plants alter critical leaf properties in response to increasing atmospheric CO2. Summary Statement: The components of the mediator kinase module are highly conserved across eukaryotic lines and cyclin‐dependent kinase 8 (CDK8) is essential for correct cell proliferation and development. We show here that control of leaf development is closely linked to the establishment of correct stomata patterning through the impact of CDK8. Comprehending the plasticity of plant morphology and the mechanisms behind it is essential for our understanding of plant environmental responses and the consequences of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought and subsequent rewatering are common in agriculture, where recovery from mild droughts is easier than from severe ones. The specific drought threshold and factors limiting recovery are under‐researched. This study subjected maize plants to varying drought degrees before rewatering, and measuring plant water status, gas exchange, hydraulic conductance, hormone levels, and cellular damage throughout. We discovered that stomatal reopening in plants was inhibited with leaf water potentials below about −1.7 MPa, hindering postdrought photosynthetic recovery. Neither hydraulic loss nor abscisic acid (ABA) content was the factor inhibited stomatal reopening on the second day following moderate drought stress and rewatering. But stomatal reopening was significantly correlated to the interaction between hydraulic signals and ABA content under severe drought. Extended drought led to leaf death at about −2.8 MPa or 57% relative water content, influenced by reduced rehydration capacity, not hydraulic failure. The lethal threshold remained relatively constant across leaf stages, but the recoverable safety margin (RSM), that is, the water potential difference between stomatal closure and recovery capacity loss, significantly decreased with leaf aging due to delayed stomatal closure during drought. Our findings indicate hydraulic failure alone does not cause maize leaf death, highlighting the importance of RSM in future research. Summary statement: Hydraulic failure alone is insufficient to induce maize leaf death, extended dehydration led to leaf death at −2.7 to −2.9 MPa or 55−58% relative water content. With leaf development, this lethal threshold remains relatively constant, while the recoverable safety margin (stomatal closure to recovery capacity loss) significantly decreased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterophylly is a phenomenon whereby an individual plant dramatically changes leaf shape in response to the surroundings. Hygrophila difformis (Acanthaceae; water wisteria), has recently emerged as a model plant to study heterophylly because of its striking leaf shape variation in response to various environmental factors. When submerged, H. difformis often develops complex leaves, but on land it develops simple leaves. Leaf complexity is also influenced by other factors, such as light density, humidity, and temperature. Here, we sequenced and assembled the H. difformis chromosome‐level genome (scaffold N50: 60.43 Mb, genome size: 871.92 Mb), which revealed 36 099 predicted protein‐coding genes distributed over 15 pseudochromosomes. H. difformis diverged from its relatives during the Oligocene climate‐change period and expanded gene families related to its amphibious habit. Genes related to environmental stimuli, leaf development, and other pathways were differentially expressed in submerged and terrestrial conditions, possibly modulating morphological and physiological acclimation to changing environments. We also found that auxin plays a role in H. difformis heterophylly. Finally, we discovered candidate genes that respond to different environmental conditions and elucidated the role of LATE MERISTEM IDENTITY 1 (LMI1) in heterophylly. We established H. difformis as a model for studying interconnections between environmental adaptation and morphogenesis. SUMMARY STATEMENT: We investigated the genome and transcriptome of Hygrophila difformis, establishing a model for heterophylly and functions of environmental factors on phenotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is a popular leafy vegetable valued for its dietary fiber, antioxidants, and beneficial vitamins. This study presents a comprehensive spatio-temporal analysis of the lettuce metabolome, revealing complex dynamics in metabolite accumulation influenced by plant age, leaf position, proximodistal distribution within a leaf, and head closure. Samples were collected from plants at five maturity stages (ranging from baby leaf to full commercial maturity and eventually to bolting) and from five leaf positions (from the apex to the base of each plant). A widely targeted metabolomics approach identified 1905 compounds, with flavonoids, phenolic acids, and lipids as the largest classes. Younger plants exhibited higher levels of flavonoids, while older plants accumulated more saccharides and amino acids. Metabolites showed distinct proximodistal distributions, with flavonoids and vitamins concentrated at leaf tips and terpenoids declining from base to tip. Head closure significantly reduced levels of flavonoids, retinol (vitamin A1), and riboflavin (vitamin B2), while it was associated with increased content of other beneficial vitamins, such as thiamine (B1), pantothenate (B5), and pyridoxine (B6). Broad-sense heritability (H2) estimates for metabolites yielded mean H2 values of 0.648 and 0.743 for plants at baby-leaf and commercial maturity stages, respectively. The overall highest heritability was observed in tannins (H2 = 0.909) in younger plants and chalcones (H2 = 0.894) in older plants, suggesting strong genetic control over specific metabolite classes and subclasses. These findings offer a robust framework for optimizing lettuce's nutritional profile by linking metabolite distributions to developmental processes, plant architecture, and genetic regulation. By leveraging these insights, breeders and producers can develop targeted strategies to enhance metabolite content through optimized breeding and harvesting strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Replicated trait evolution can provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the evolution of biodiversity. One example of replicated evolution is the awn, an organ elaboration in grass inflorescences. Awns are likely homologous to leaf blades. We hypothesized that awns have evolved repeatedly because a conserved leaf blade developmental program is continuously activated and suppressed over the course of evolution, leading to the repeated emergence and loss of awns. To evaluate predictions arising from our hypothesis, we used ancestral state estimations, comparative genetics, anatomy, and morphology to trace awn evolution. We discovered that awned lemmas that evolved independently share similarities in developmental trajectory. In addition, in two species with independently derived awns and differing awn morphologies (Brachypodium distachyon and Alopecurus myosuroides), we found that orthologs of the YABBY transcription factor gene DROOPING LEAF are required for awn initiation. Our analyses of awn development in Brachypodium distachyon, Alopecurus myosuroides, and Holcus lanatus also revealed that differences in the relative expansion of awned lemma compartments can explain diversity in awn morphology at maturity. Our results show that developmental conservation can underlie replicated evolution and can potentiate the evolution of morphological diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The herbicide fluridone (1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-[3-trifluoromethyl (phenyl)]-4(1H)-pyridone) interferes with carotenoid biosynthesis in plants by inhibiting the conversion of phytoene to phytofluene. Fluridone also indirectly inhibits the biosynthesis of abscisic acid and strigolactones, and therefore, our study indirectly addresses the effect of reduced ABA on the roots and leaf buds development in stem cuttings of Salix babylonica L. 'Tortuosa'. The stem cuttings were kept in distilled water (control) or in a solution of fluridone (10 mg/L) in natural greenhouse light and temperature conditions. During the experiments, morphological observations were carried out on developing roots and leaf buds, as well as their appearance and growth. After three weeks of continuous treatments, adventitious roots and leaf buds were collected and analysed. Identification and analysis of anthocyanins were carried out using micro-HPLC-MS/MS-TOF, while HPLC-MS/MS was used to analyse phenolic acids, flavonoids and salicinoids. The fluridone applied significantly inhibited root growth, but the number or density of roots was higher compared to the control. Contents of salicortin and salicin were several dozen times higher in leaf buds than in roots of willow. Fluridone increased the content of salicortin in roots and leaf buds and declined the level of salicin in buds. Fluridone also declined the content of most anthocyanins in roots but enhanced their content in buds, especially cyanidin glucoside, cyanidin galactoside and cyanidin rutinoside. Besides, fluridone markedly decreased the level of chlorophylls and carotenoids in the leaf buds. The results indicate that applied fluridone solution reduced root growth, caused bleaching of leaf buds, and markedly affected the content of secondary metabolites in the adventitious roots and leaf buds of S. babylonica stem cuttings. The paper presents and discusses in detail the significance of fluridone's effects on physiological processes and secondary metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: C4 species have evolved more than 60 times independently from C3 ancestors. This multiple and parallel evolution of the complex C4 trait suggests common underlying evolutionary mechanisms, which could be identified by comparative analysis of closely related C3 and C4 species. Efficient C4 function depends on a distinctive leaf anatomy that is characterised by enlarged, chloroplast‐rich bundle sheath cells and narrow vein spacing. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms that generate the Kranz anatomy, we analysed a developmental series of leaves from the C4 plant Flaveria bidentis and the closely related C3 species Flaveria robusta by comparing anatomies and transcriptomes. Vascular density measurements of all nine leaf developmental stages identified three leaf anatomical zones whose proportions vary with respect to the developmental stage. We then deconvoluted the transcriptome datasets using non‐negative matrix factorisation, which identified four distinct transcriptome patterns in the growing leaves of both species. By integrating the leaf anatomy and transcriptome data, we were able to correlate the different transcriptional profiles with different developmental zones in the leaves. These comparisons revealed an important role for auxin metabolism, in particular auxin homeostasis (conjugation and deconjugation), in establishing the high vein density typical of C4 species. Significance Statement: A developmental series of leaves from Flaveria robusta (C3) and Flaveria bidentis (C4) has been analysed by comparing their anatomy and transcriptomes. It was found that leaf development proceeds very similar in both species and that changes in the expression of auxin homeostasis genes is linked to higher vein density in the C4 Flaveria species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Leaves, as primary photosynthetic organs essential for high crop yield and quality, have attracted significant attention. The functions of DNA topoisomerase 1α (TOP1α) in various biological processes, including leaf development, in Brassica napus remain unknown. Here, four paralogs of BnaTOP1α, namely BnaA01.TOP1α, BnaA02.TOP1α, BnaC01.TOP1α and BnaC02.TOP1α, were identified and cloned in the B. napus inbred line 'K407'. Expression pattern analysis revealed that BnaA02.TOP1α and BnaC02.TOP1α, but not BnaA01.TOP1α and BnaC01.TOP1α, were persistently and highly expressed in B. napus true leaves. Preliminary analysis in Arabidopsis thaliana revealed that BnaA02.TOP1α and BnaC02.TOP1α paralogs, but not BnaA01.TOP1α and BnaC01.TOP1α, performed biological functions. Targeted mutations of four BnaTOP1α paralogs in B. napus using the CRISPR‐Cas9 system revealed that BnaA02.TOP1α and BnaC02.TOP1α served as functional paralogs and redundantly promoted true leaf number and size, thereby promoting true leaf biomass accumulation. Moreover, BnaA02.TOP1α modulated the levels of endogenous gibberellins, cytokinins and auxins by indirectly regulating several genes related to their metabolism processes. BnaA02.TOP1α directly activated BnaA03.CCS52A2 and BnaC09.AN3 by facilitating the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and modulating H3K27me3, H3K36me2 and H3K36me3 levels at these loci and indirectly activated the BnaA08.PARL1 expression, thereby positively controlling the true leaf size in B. napus. Additionally, BnaA02.TOP1α indirectly activated the BnaA07.PIN1 expression to positively regulate the true leaf number. These results reveal the important functions of BnaTOP1α and provide insights into the regulatory network controlling true leaf biomass accumulation in B. napus. Significance Statement: This study helps us understand the important functions of BnaTOP1α and provide insights into the regulatory network controlling true leaf biomass accumulation in B. napus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic reductions in soil moisture combined with high air temperatures can modify tree carbon and water relations. However, little is known about how trees acclimate their foliar structure to the individual and combined effects of these two climate drivers. We used open‐top chambers to determine the multi‐year effects of chronic air warming (+5 °C) and soil moisture reduction (−50%) alone and in combination on the foliar anatomy of two European tree species. We further investigated how these climate drivers affected the relationship between foliar anatomy and physiology/chemistry in young downy oak and European beech trees. After 4 years, reduced soil moisture led to development of thinner leaves with a narrower epidermis and lower gas exchange for oak and beech, but to a lesser extent in the latter. In contrast, prolonged warming did not affect the anatomical and physiological/chemical traits in either species. Warming also did not exacerbate the impacts of dry soils, highlighting soil moisture as the key driver in leaf anatomical shifts. While soil moisture altered oak foliar anatomy, and the physiology and chemistry of both species, our work revealed a limited acclimation potential towards more drought‐ and heat‐tolerant leaves as conditions become drier and warmer, suggesting potentially high vulnerability of both species to future climate predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant phenology is crucial for understanding plant growth and climate feedback. It affects canopy structure, surface albedo, and carbon and water fluxes. While the influence of environmental factors on phenology is well‐documented, the role of plant intrinsic factors, particularly internal physiological processes and their interaction with external conditions, has received less attention. Non‐structural carbohydrates (NSC), which include sugars and starch essential for growth, metabolism and osmotic regulation, serve as indicators of carbon availability in plants. NSC levels reflect the carbon balance between photosynthesis (source activity) and the demands of growth and respiration (sink activity), making them key physiological traits that potentially influence phenology during critical periods such as spring leaf‐out and autumn leaf senescence. However, the connections between NSC concentrations in various organs and phenological events are poorly understood. This review synthesizes current research on the relationship between leaf phenology and NSC dynamics. We qualitatively delineate seasonal NSC variations in deciduous and evergreen trees and propose testable hypotheses about how NSC may interact with phenological stages such as bud break and leaf senescence. We also discuss how seasonal variations in NSC levels, align with existing conceptual models of carbon allocation. Accurate characterization and simulation of NSC dynamics are crucial and should be incorporated into carbon allocation models. By comparing and reviewing the development of carbon allocation models, we highlight the shortcomings in current methodologies and recommend directions to address these gaps in future research. Understanding the relationship between NSC, source–sink relationships, and leaf phenology poses challenges due to the difficulty of characterizing NSC dynamics with high temporal resolution. We advocate for a multi‐scale approach that combines various methods, which include deepening our mechanistic understanding through manipulative experiments, integrating carbon sink and source data from multiple observational networks with carbon allocation models to better characterize the NSC dynamics, and quantifying the spatial pattern and temporal trends of the NSC‐phenology relationship using remote sensing and modelling. This will enhance our comprehension of how NSC dynamics impact leaf phenology across different scales and environments. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vaccinium dunalianum , a medicinal plant, is utilized for Quezui Tea production from its leaf buds and young leaves. Despite prior research on V. dunalianum revealing several medicinal compounds, the comprehensive variations in metabolites during its growth and development, along with the molecular mechanisms underlying high chlorogenic acid (CGA) yield, remain unclear. Through a joint analysis of transcriptomics and proteomics, our study first identified 15 key structural genes and 3 transcription factors influencing CGA biosynthesis in V. dunalianum , offering new evidence to understand its regulatory network. Furthermore, non-targeted metabolomics analysis provides the first extensive report on the metabolic profile of V. dunalianum , furnishing a valuable dataset for deeper exploration of its nutritional and medicinal value, and the development of a quality evaluation system for its product Quezui Tea. This study offers the most comprehensive molecular information on V. dunalianum , marking a significant step toward understanding and enhancing the plant's potential for medicinal and nutritional applications. Additionally, this study also reveals V. dunalianum holds promise as a natural antioxidant source for functional foods, providing data support for network pharmacology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcription Factors (TFs) are key regulators of how plants grow and develop. Among the diverse TF families, the Glabrous-enhancer binding protein (GeBP) family plays a key role in trichome initiation and leaf development. The specific roles of GeBP TFs in plants remain largely unexplored, although GeBP transcription factors play important roles in plants. This study identified 16 GhGeBP genes in Gossypium hirsutum, ranging from 534 bp (GhGeBP14) to 1560 bp (GhGeBP2). Phylogenetic analysis grouped 16 GhGeBP genes clustered into three subgroups, unevenly distributed across 14 chromosomes. Analysis of the cis-acting elements revealed 408 motifs in the 2 kb upstream regions of the promoters, including stress-responsive, phytohormone-responsive, and light-responsive elements. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed 8 GhGeBP genes were highly expressed across all tissues, while GhGeBP4 and GhGeBP12 were down-regulated under conditions of drought, salt, cold, and heat stress. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified GhGeBP4 was associated with fiber micronaire (FM) and fiber strength (FS), while GhGeBP9 was linked to the node of the first fruiting branch (NFFB) and flowering time (FT). Haplotype analysis revealed that GhGeBP4-HAP2 exhibited higher fiber quality traits, while GhGeBP9-HAP2 was associated with early maturity. The results of this study offer significant insights that are worthy of further investigation into the role of the GhGeBP gene family in G. hirsutum and promising targets for marker-assisted selection strategies in cotton breeding programs, particularly for improving fiber quality and early maturity traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants distribute many nutrients to chloroplasts during leaf development and maturation. When leaves senesce or experience sugar starvation, the autophagy machinery degrades chloroplast proteins to facilitate efficient nutrient reuse. Here, we report on the intracellular dynamics of an autophagy pathway responsible for piecemeal degradation of chloroplast components. Through live-cell monitoring of chloroplast morphology, we observed the formation of chloroplast budding structures in sugar-starved leaves. These buds were then released and incorporated into the vacuolar lumen as an autophagic cargo termed a Rubisco-containing body. The budding structures did not accumulate in mutants of core autophagy machinery, suggesting that autophagosome creation is required for forming chloroplast buds. Simultaneous tracking of chloroplast morphology and autophagosome development revealed that the isolation membranes of autophagosomes interact closely with part of the chloroplast surface before forming chloroplast buds. Chloroplasts then protrude at the site associated with the isolation membranes, which divide synchronously with autophagosome maturation. This autophagy-related division does not require DYNAMIN-RELATED PROTEIN 5B, which constitutes the division ring for chloroplast proliferation in growing leaves. An unidentified division machinery may thus fragment chloroplasts for degradation in coordination with the development of the chloroplast-associated isolation membrane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: Teosinte branched1/Cycloidea/Proliferating cell nuclear antigen factors (TCPs) are plant-specific transcription factors involved in leaf development, flowering, branching, hormone signaling, and stress responses. Prunus a key temperate fruit tree with ornamental spring blooms, still lacks comprehensive TCP gene studies across many species. Methods: We identified 154 TCP genes in eight Prunus species: 19 in Prunus tenella var. tenella, 19 in P. amygdalus, 17 in P. armeniaca 'Rojo Pasion', 19 in P. mira, 20 in P. jamasakura var. jamasakura, 19 in P. fruticosa, 19 in P. mume var. tortuosa, and 22 in P. × yedoensis 'Somei-yoshino'. These genes were classified into PCF, CIN, and CYC/TB1 groups. We examined segmental duplication, conserved motifs, and cis-acting elements. Expression patterns of 12 TCPs in P. tenella var. tenella were tested under low-temperature stress (25 °C, 5 °C, −5 °C, and −10 °C), and PtTCP9's subcellular localization was determined. Results: TCP genes within the same groups showed similar motifs and cis-acting elements. Cold stress analysis identified multiple low-temperature-responsive elements in gene promoters. Four genes (PtTCP2, PtTCP6, PtTCP14, and PtTCP16) increased expression under cold stress, while six genes (PtTCP1, PtTCP5, PtTCP8, PtTCP9, PtTCP17, and PtTCP19) decreased. PtTCP9 was localized to the nucleus. Conclusions: This was the first genome-wide study of the TCP gene family in these eight Prunus species, providing valuable insights into the characteristics and functions of TCP genes within this important genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapeseed is an important commercial crop globally, used for both animal fodder and human consumption. Varied insolation duration and intensity are among the main factors affecting the seed yield and quality of Brassica napus (B. napus) worldwide. In this study, the high-oil-content rapeseed cultivar "Qingyou 3" was subjected to a light supplementation trial during both the vegetative growth period and the seed productive stage. Different light intensity conditions were stimulated using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The main plot factor was land condition, with LED treatment (Treatment) and without LED treatment (Control) under natural conditions. The results showed that the leaf size and thickness, photosynthesis efficiency, and seed oil content of B. napus increased significantly after light supplementation. Then, 18 cDNA libraries were constructed from leaf segments (30 days after transplanting—DAT) and seeds 30 and 40 days after pollination (DPA) for RNA transcriptome sequencing. It was found that genes encoding lipid transfer protein, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, photosynthesis, and plant hormone signal transduction were enriched in differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The qRT-PCR analysis showed that eight key genes had significant variations, a finding also consistent with the RNA-seq results. The aim of this study was to identify the DEGs and signaling pathways in the leaves and seeds of B. napus during the vegetative and seed productive stages under different light intensities. The results provide insight into how sufficient light plays a critical role in promoting photosynthesis and serves as the foundation for material accumulation and yield formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise: Studies into the evolution and development of leaf shape have connected variation in plant form, function, and fitness. For species with consistent leaf margin features, patterns in leaf architecture are related to both biotic and abiotic factors. However, for species with inconsistent leaf shapes, quantifying variation in leaf shape and the effects of environmental factors on leaf shape has proven challenging. Methods: To investigate leaf shape variation in a species with inconsistently shaped leaves, we used geometric morphometric modeling and deterministic techniques to analyze approximately 500 digitized specimens of Capsella bursa‐pastoris collected throughout the continental United States over 100 years. We generated a morphospace of the leaf shapes and modeled leaf shape as a function of environment and time. Results: Leaf shape variation of C. bursa‐pastoris was strongly associated with temperature over its growing season, with lobing decreasing as temperature increased. While we expected to see changes in variation over time, our results show that the level of leaf shape variation was consistent over the 100 years. Conclusions: Our findings showed that species with inconsistent leaf shape variation can be quantified using geometric morphometric modeling techniques and that temperature is the main environmental factor influencing leaf shape variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural and physiological leaf traits and their plasticity were compared in the hemiepiphyte Vanilla phaeantha. This species grows along a phorophyte reaching different understorey positions and exhibiting diverse responses to environment changes. We analysed three height strata above the ground, establishing a light gradient, and considering seasonal water fluctuations. The upper leaves had higher area and mass and were less pigmented. The dry season induced a reduction of approximately 2 h of stomatal opening over the diel 24 h crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) cycle in the leaves at all understorey positions. The leaves more exposed to sunlight were larger with higher titratable acidity during the rainy season, while the leaves near the ground maintained the same rates of stomatal conductance and nocturnal acidification between seasons, with lowest values of carbon isotopes in the rainy season. Our research showed that some structural leaf traits (such as specific leaf mass, biomass, and saturated water content) are sensitive to variation in understorey position. In contrast, other physiological traits (stomatal conductance, transpiration, and fluorescence parameters) are more sensitive to seasonal variations. The results are a novelty in assessing the variation of CAM along the same plant in a height gradient and under field conditions. Surviving in conditions of water fluctuation and light heterogeneity by plants requires to be plastic. We showed that the hemiepiphyte Vanilla phaeantha adjusts leaf traits and their metabolism for atmospheric CO2 capture in function of the vertical gradient of the understorey (that has different light availability and air humidity), and according to water seasonality. The morphological traits mainly varied according to the understorey position, while physiological ones were more sensitive to seasonal variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germin-like proteins (GLPs) play important roles in the regulation of various plant development processes, such as seed vigor, root and leaf development and disease resistance, while the roles of GLPs on agronomic traits are rarely studied in Brassica napus. Here, we identified GLPs family genes in rapeseed and analyzed their potential functions. There are 77 GLPs family genes (BnGLPs) in the Zhongshuang11 rapeseed reference genome, divided into a, b, c, d, e, f six subfamilies. Tissue expression profile analysis of BnGLPs revealed the following: e subfamily genes were highly expressed in early stages of silique, cotyledon, vegetative rosette and leaf development; f subfamily genes were highly expressed in seed development; genes of a subfamily were mainly expressed in the root; and genes of b, c, d subfamily exhibited low-level or no expression in above mentioned tissues. RT-qPCR analysis confirmed that the transcripts of two f subfamily members decreased dramatically during seed germination, suggesting that f subfamily proteins may play vital roles in the early stage of seed germination. Transcriptome analysis of axillary buds in sequential developing stages revealed that the transcripts of eight e subfamily genes showed a rapid increase at the beginning of shoot branching, implying that the e subfamily members played vital roles in branch development. These results demonstrate that rapeseed BnGLPs likely play essential roles in seedling development, root development and plant architecture, indicating that harnessing certain BnGLPs may contribute to the improvement of rapeseed yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrass seed‐based restoration has been developed in several places worldwide, but disturbance at the vulnerable initial stages of seedling recruitment has proved to be a major bottleneck to successful restoration. A detailed investigation of seagrass seedling survival and growth at the earliest stages of seedling development is an important contribution to developing techniques to improve seedling establishment and survival. Here, we investigated the early seedling development of Posidonia australis and P. sinuosa as well as quantifying the variation in seedling survival and development under different seed‐based restoration methods. Early seedling development was documented in indoor aquaria during the first month after fruit dehiscence. In the second ex situ experiment, we determined the effects of three different restoration methods (surface sowing, seedling planting, and planting inside a hessian bag) on seedling survival and development over the first 2 months of life. In the first experiment, a primary root with the first root hairs developed after 7 days. After 1 month, roots were 20–60 mm in length, firmly establishing the seedling into the sediment. Compared to surface sowing, seedling planting and hessian bag restoration treatments did not significantly affect survival for P. australis but increased seedling mortality in P. sinuosa, although growth was greater (shoot and root lengths were approximately 50 and 40% longer, respectively). These aquarium‐scale experiments suggest that planting methods would enhance seedling establishment at larger scales in some species, promoting restoration of damaged seagrass habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson is a problematic weed that has been encountered almost all over the world because of its stronger adaptability, which causes huge economic losses and local plant diversity decline. As an invasive plant, A. palmeri has been found throughout China. We thus make a code system to describe the phenological growth process of A. palmeri according to the extended BBCH scale to better understand the phenological growth of this weed in China. The growth process of A. palmeri was divided into vegetative growth phases and reproductive growth phases. The vegetative growth phases are composed of seed germination (0), leaf development (1), formation of side shoots (2) and main stem elongation (3). Likewise, the reproductive growth phases include inflorescence emergence (5), blooming (6), fruit development (7), seed maturity (8) and senescence (9). Based on the extended BBCH scale, the first digit stands for the primary growth stages, and the third digit represents the secondary growth stages. In particular, the second digit defines the growth progress: the number 0, means the vegetative growth phases, and the number 1 stands for the reproductive growth phases. Owing to the fact that its seed can germinate multiple times within a year, a general illustration of the phenological development stages of A. palmeri germinating in different months was provided here to describe the growth dynamic characteristic at different times. These data are of great significance to develop effective strategies for weed control and management of A. palmeri. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sand rice (Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.) Moq.), an annual psammophyte, is a promising wild plant for de novo domestication. Although many related studies have been documented recently, a basic phenological scale describing its growth stages is lacking. To address this gap, we have defined nine principal growth stages, each subdivided into several secondary stages according the international BBCH coding system. The growth stages mainly include seedling emergence, leaf development, formation of the primary branches, main stem elongation, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, ripening and senescence. Importantly, the growth sequence of sand rice reveals a distinctive stage, coded as BBCH21, characterized by the elongation of the first pair of primary branches, which occurs prior to main stem visible (BBCH30). This branch priority phenotype in sand rice strongly challenges the generally recognized growth pattern of 'apical dominance' in dicotyledons. The sequential and chronological progression of principal growth stages of sand rice was further determined in an experimental field with a representative genotype from the Tengger desert of Northwest China in 2023. The establishment of BBCH scale of sand rice lays a methodological foundation for morphological assessment among different germplasms and between wild‐type and mutant plants. This will accelerate the de novo domestication process of sand rice using natural selection and artificial mutagenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Agronomica Sinica is the property of Crop Science Society of China and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Spring low-temperature stress (LTS) has become a major limiting factor for the development of high yield, quality and efficiency in wheat production. It not only affects the function of wheat leaves and the development of spikes but also impacts stem lodging resistance, and may experience elevated risk of stem lodging. This study conducted a field pot experiment to assess the effect of phosphorus fertilizer application mode on wheat stem lodging resistance under spring LTS. Two wheat varieties, Yannong19 (YN19, cold-tolerant variety) and Xinmai26 (XM26, cold-sensitive variety) used as the experiment material. Two phosphorus fertilizer application models including traditional phosphorus application (TPA) and optimized phosphorus application (OPA) were employed. Temperature treatment was conducted at 15 °C (CK) and −4 °C (LT) in a controlled phytotron. Our results showed that spring LTS decreased the stem wall thickness and internode fullness, and altered stem anatomical structure and chemical composition, resulting in a decrease in wheat stem mechanical strength and lodging resistant index. Compared with TPA, the OPA increased the stem wall thickness and internode fullness. The thickness of the stem mechanic tissue layer and parenchymatous tissue, and the area of the large vascular bundle and small vascular bundle were increased by the OPA, which alleviated the damage to stem cell walls caused by spring LTS. At the same time, the OPA also increased the contents of lignin, cellulose, and soluble sugar, improving the C/N ratio in wheat stem. Due to the improved stem morphological characteristics, anatomical structure, and chemical compositions, the wheat stem exhibited enhanced lodging resistance, which increased the lodging resistant index of the 2nd and 3rd internodes of YN19 and XM26 by 27.27%, 11.63% and 14.15%, 15.73% at the dough stage compared with TPA under spring LTS. Meanwhile, OPA could not only alleviate the yield loss caused by spring LTS, but also increase the grain yield without spring LTS. This study indicated that OPA enhances wheat stem lodging resistance under spring LTS, and would be meaningful and practical for improving wheat resistance to low-temperature stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pigeonpea productivity can be enhanced by optimally matching the physiology of genotypes to environmental conditions. Information on crop responses to the environment has been lacking for the short‐duration pigeonpea genotypes, which are being trialed to develop the Australian pigeonpea industry. The objective of this study was to examine the dynamics of productivity in relation to radiation use efficiency (RUE) and its influence on yield partitioning. Seven field trials, employing three pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.). Millsp.] genotypes, were established at the Gatton Campus, the University of Queensland, Australia, in 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 summer seasons. The study reveals that leaf area development, influenced by growing environment, genotypes, and their interactions, were the key factors for the differences in leaf area duration and RUE. Pigeonpea planted in December had higher seasonal (1.11 g MJ−1) as well as reproductive (0.71 g MJ−1) RUE, resulting in significant differences in total dry matter (TDM) and grain yield (GY). GY was positively associated with seasonal RUE (R2 = 0.62), and the relationship was stronger (R2 = 0.83) for the reproductive phase (RUE(R)). The positive association between GY and RUE(R) suggested that maintaining optimum leaf area during the grain filling period is crucial to achieve higher productivity. Variations in GY were related to amount and rate of TDM accumulation before flowering (R2 = 0.51 and R2 = 0.53, respectively). Hence, achieving greater TDM before flowering was determinant for achieving higher productivity. The present study provided updated information on dynamics of productivity that will enable more comprehensive modelling of pigeonpea adaptation under subtropical conditions. Core Ideas: Productivity in pigeonpea genotypes is positively correlated with leaf area duration and radiation use efficiency.Larger pigeonpea canopies and longer leaf area duration (°Cd) resulted in greater radiation use efficiency.The rate of dry matter production before flowering is instrumental for achieving higher productivity.Variations in grain yield were related to amount of dry matter produced before flowering.Differences in extinction coefficient indicate pigeonpea has an adaptive mechanism to changing environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two-component system (TCS) consists of histidine kinase (HK), histidine phosphate transfer protein (HP), and response regulatory factor (RR). It is one of the most crucial components of signal transduction in plants, playing a significant role in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to various abiotic stresses. Although TCS genes have been extensively identified in a variety of plants, the genome-wide recognition and examination of TCS in switchgrass remain unreported. Accordingly, this study identified a total of 87 TCS members in the genome of switchgrass, comprising 20 HK(L)s, 10 HPs, and 57 RRs. Detailed analyses were also conducted on their gene structures, conserved domains, and phylogenetic relationships. Moreover, this study analysed the gene expression profiles across diverse organs and investigated their response patterns to adverse environmental stresses. Results revealed that 87 TCS genes were distributed across 18 chromosomes, with uneven distribution. Expansion of these genes in switchgrass was achieved through both fragment and tandem duplication. PvTCS members are relatively conservative in the evolutionary process, but the gene structure varies significantly. Various cis-acting elements, varying in types and amounts, are present in the promoter region of PvTCSs, all related to plant growth, development, and abiotic stress, due to the TCS gene structure. Protein-protein interaction and microRNA prediction suggest complex interactions and transcriptional regulation among TCS members. Additionally, most TCS members are expressed in roots and stems, with some genes showing organ-specific expression at different stages of leaf and inflorescence development. Under conditions of abiotic stress such as drought, low temperature, high temperature, and salt stress, as well as exogenous abscisic acid (ABA), the expression of most TCS genes is either stimulated or inhibited. Our systematic analysis could offer insight into the characterization of the TCS genes, and further the growth of functional studies in switchgrass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Plant breeding played a very important role in transforming strawberries from being a niche crop with a small geographical footprint into an economically important crop grown across the planet. But even modern marker assisted breeding takes a considerable amount of time, over multiple plant generations, to produce a plant with desirable traits. As a quicker alternative, plants with desirable traits can be raised through tissue culture by doing precise genetic manipulations. Overexpression of morphogenic regulators previously known for meristem development, the transcription factors Growth-Regulating Factors (GRFs) and the GRF-Interacting Factors (GIFs), provided an efficient strategy for easier regeneration and transformation in multiple crops. Results: We present here a comprehensive protocol for the diploid strawberry Fragaria vesca Hawaii 4 (strawberry) regeneration and transformation under control condition as compared to ectopic expression of different GRF4-GIF1 chimeras from different plant species. We report that ectopic expression of Vitis vinifera VvGRF4-GIF1 provides significantly higher regeneration efficiency during re-transformation over wild-type plants. On the other hand, deregulated expression of miRNA resistant version of VvGRF4-GIF1 or Triticum aestivum (wheat) TaGRF4-GIF1 resulted in abnormalities. Transcriptomic analysis between the different chimeric GRF4-GIF1 lines indicate that differential expression of FvExpansin might be responsible for the observed pleiotropic effects. Similarly, cytokinin dehydrogenase/oxygenase and cytokinin responsive response regulators also showed differential expression indicating GRF4-GIF1 pathway playing important role in controlling cytokinin homeostasis. Conclusion: Our data indicate that ectopic expression of Vitis vinifera VvGRF4-GIF1 chimera can provide significant advantage over wild-type plants during strawberry regeneration without producing any pleiotropic effects seen for the miRNA resistant VvGRF4-GIF1 or TaGRF4-GIF1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Trichomes, which originate from the epidermal cell of aerial organs, provide plants with defense and secretion functions. Although numerous genes have been implicated in trichome development, the molecular mechanisms underlying trichome cell formation in plants remain incompletely understood. Here, we using genome‐wide association study (GWAS) across 1037 diverse accessions in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) to identify three loci associated with leaf pubescence (hair) amount, located on chromosome A06 (LPA1), A08 (LPA2) and A11 (LPA3), respectively. GhHD1, a previously characterized candidate gene, was identified on LPA1 and encodes an HD‐Zip transcription factor. For LPA2 and LPA3, we identified two candidate genes, GhGIR1 and GhGIR2, both encoding proteins with WD40 and RING domains that act as inhibitors of leaf hair formation. Expression analysis revealed that GhHD1 was predominantly expressed in hairy accessions, whereas GhGIR1 and GhGIR2 were expressed in hairless accessions. Silencing GhHD1 or overexpressing GhGIR1 in hairy accessions induced in a hairless phenotype, whereas silencing GhGIR2 in hairless accessions resulted in a hairy phenotype. We also demonstrated that GhHD1 interact with both GhGIR1 and GhGIR2, and GhGIR1 can interact with GhGIR2. Further investigation indicated that GhHD1 functions as a transcriptional activator, binding to the promoters of the GhGIR1 and GhGIR2 to active their expression, whereas GhGIR1 and GhGIR2 can suppress the transcriptional activation of GhHD1. Our findings shed light on the intricate regulatory network involving GhHD1, GhGIR1 and GhGIR2 in the initiation and development of plant epidermal hairs in cotton. The regulation mechanism of leaf hair development in upland cotton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peat moss (Sphagnum) is a non-vascular higher plant with unique xylem-like hyaline (H) cells that are accompanied by photosynthetic chlorophyllous cells. These cellular structures play crucial roles in water storage and carbon sequestration. However, it is largely unknown how peat moss develops the H cells. This study systematically explored the Sphagnum Developmental Cell Atlas and Lineage and classified leaf cell development into two lineages with six stages (S0-S5) based on changes in key cellular traits, including the formation of spiral secondary cell walls (S4) and the presence of water pores (S5). Cell lineage-specific subcellular remodeling was transcriptionally regulated during leaf development, and vacuole-mediated clearance of organelles and cell death led to mature dead H cells. Interestingly, expression of land plant conserved Vascular-related NAC Domain (VND) genes correlated with H cell formation. Overall, these results suggest that the origination of xylem-like H cells is related to VND, likely through the neofunctionalization of vacuole-mediated cell death to attempt xylem formation in peat moss, suggesting potential uncoupling of xylem and phloem cell origins. This study positions peat moss as a potential model organism for studying integrative evolutionary cell biology. A study in peat moss reveals that transcriptional regulation of subcellular remodeling underlies dimorphic cell patterning, while VND-regulated, vacuole-mediated organelle clearance and cell death lead to mature, xylem-like hyaline cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High‐latitude vegetation experience different temperatures than the ambient air temperature. While lacking a regional plant temperature product, we drove the dynamic ecosystem model, LPJ‐GUESS, with widely used ERA5‐land surface temperature (Tsurf, at radiative equilibrium) and air temperature to understand ecosystem process responses to these two temperatures. We show that tundra plants' growth is stimulated by warmer Tsurf in the summer, but in the boreal forests, colder Tsurf in the non‐summer months constrains leaf development and enzyme activity the following growing season. Tsurf drives higher productivity of tundra plant individuals but leads to less productive individuals in the boreal forest, although with compensatory changes (almost 68%) in vegetation structure. We demonstrate the importance of forcing temperature in simulating high‐latitude ecosystem processes and call for a community effort to measure plant temperatures across canopy heights and seasons to reduce uncertainties in estimating high‐latitude plant responses and feedback to climate. Plain Language Summary: The temperature experienced by plants often differs from the surrounding air temperature. This plant temperature plays a large role in how plants grow and function. By using two common observation‐based temperature data sets (air and surface temperatures) to drive an ecosystem model, we found that warmer summer surface temperatures stimulate tundra plant growth, but colder temperatures in other seasons than summer can limit growth in the boreal forest. We highlight how important it is to use actual temperatures plants in high‐latitude ecosystems experience to improve our understanding of how these plants interact with their environment under the changing climate. Key Points: Plant growths in tundra are stimulated by surface temperature which is higher than air temperature in summer monthsForcing temperature is crucial in determining high‐latitude vegetation structure and productivityNor surface or air temperature can sufficiently capture plant temperature dynamics [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Science & Technology of Food Industry is the property of Science & Technology of Food Industry Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The polyketide antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) is a phenolic secondary metabolite produced by Pseudomonas spp. that serves as a biocontrol agent. DAPG is known to inhibit root growth and seed germination in plants. However, the effects of DAPG on leaf growth have not been elucidated yet. In this study, we found that applying DAPG at concentration above 30 µM suppresses the development of Arabidopsis leaves. Using an integrated proteomic analysis approach, we investigated the physio-molecular responses of Arabidopsis leaves under 10–100 µM DAPG treatment. Two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE)-based proteomic analysis identified 46 differentially expressed spots with at least a twofold change, corresponding to 37 proteins involved in stress and defense, metabolism, photosynthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism processes. Furthermore, we found that the expressions of stress and defense-related proteins were upregulated in response to DAPG, while those of photosynthesis-related proteins were downregulated. Additionally, RT-PCR result showed that the identified DAPG-responsive proteins in the proteomic analysis were similarly regulated at the transcriptional level. Collectively, our findings provide insights into the molecular mechanism of the response to DAPG in Arabidopsis leaves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitats resulting from agricultural intensification harbour a wide array of stressors for resident organisms. Environmental stress during development can leave imprints on the phenotype that are useful as indicators of its impairment. Among them, fluctuating asymmetry (FA), considered the morphological manifestation of developmental instability (DI), may reflect the increment of developmental noise and the inefficiency of buffering mechanisms. Here, we evaluated for the first time the impact of intensive agriculture on the development of a viviparous reptile, the asp viper, Vipera aspis (Linnaeus 1758), by means of FA. To this end, we first quantified unsigned asymmetry indexes (uAI) of dorsal head shape captured by geometric morphometrics (GM) and of seven pholidotic traits in 127 and 482 individuals, respectively. Using linear models, we then tested for variation in uAI according to habitat type. Furthermore, we tested the effect of climatic variables with a potential influence on development, and thus, on FA. We performed analyses at the V. aspis zinnikeri subspecies range and at the population level, including three well‐sampled natural localities (NAT) and three sites of intensive agriculture (AGR). We found significantly higher FA levels in dorsal head shape in individuals from agricultural habitats than in those from natural habitats, which suggests that asp viper development is impaired by stressors resulting from agricultural intensification. Our results also point to a lower sensitivity of traditional morphological tools to capture the signal that intensive agriculture leaves on development and a lack of capacity of climatic factors in isolation to predict variation in the degree of asymmetry. In addition to encouraging the use of high‐precision methods, we hypothesize on the overall effect of different stressors linked to intensive agriculture as the real constraint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade composed of YODA (YDA)-MKK4/MKK5-MPK3/MPK6 plays an essential role downstream of the ERECTA (ER)/ER-LIKE (ERL) receptor complex in regulating stomatal development in the leaf epidermis. STOMAGEN (STO), a peptide ligand produced in mesophyll cells, competes with EPIDERMAL PATTERNING FACTOR2 (EPF2) for binding ER/ERL receptors to promote stomatal formation. In this study, we found that activation of MPK3/MPK6 suppresses STO expression. Using MUTE and STO promoters that confer epidermis- and mesophyll-specific expression, respectively, we generated lines with cell-specific activation and suppression of MPK3/MPK6. The activation or suppression of MPK3/MPK6 in either epidermis or mesophyll cells is sufficient to alter stomatal differentiation. Epistatic analyses demonstrated that STO overexpression can rescue the suppression of stomatal formation conferred by the mesophyll-specific expression of the constitutively active MKK4DD or MKK5DD, but not by the epidermis-specific expression of these constitutively active MKKs. These data suggest that STO is downstream of MPK3/MPK6 in mesophyll cells, but upstream of MPK3/MPK6 in epidermal cells in stomatal development signaling. This function of the MPK3/MPK6 cascade allows it to coordinate plant epidermis development based on its activity in mesophyll cells during leaf development. MPK3/MPK6 cascade functions downstream of ERECTA family receptors in the epidermis and upstream of the STOMAGEN peptide in the mesophyll tissue to control stomatal development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestication has shaped the population structure and agronomic traits of tea plants, yet the complexity of tea population structure and genetic variation that determines these traits remains unclear. We here investigated the resequencing data of 363 diverse tea accessions collected extensively from almost all tea distributions and found that the population structure of tea plants was divided into eight subgroups, which were basically consistent with their geographical distributions. The genetic diversity of tea plants in China decreased from southwest to east as latitude increased. Results also indicated that Camellia sinensis var. assamica (CSA) illustrated divergent selection signatures with Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (CSS). The domesticated genes of CSA were mainly involved in leaf development, flavonoid and alkaloid biosynthesis, while the domesticated genes in CSS mainly participated in amino acid metabolism, aroma compounds biosynthesis, and cold stress. Comparative population genomics further identified ~730 Mb novel sequences, generating 6,058 full‐length protein‐encoding genes, significantly expanding the gene pool of tea plants. We also discovered 217,376 large‐scale structural variations and 56,583 presence and absence variations (PAVs) across diverse tea accessions, some of which were associated with tea quality and stress resistance. Functional experiments demonstrated that two PAV genes (CSS0049975 and CSS0006599) were likely to drive trait diversification in cold tolerance between CSA and CSS tea plants. The overall findings not only revealed the genetic diversity and domestication of tea plants, but also underscored the vital role of structural variations in the diversification of tea plant traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaf ontogeny of tropical evergreen tree species lasts several months with changes in size, shape, colouration and internal tissue distribution of leaves. Leaf initiation in Saraca asoca generally occurs once in a year during February–April, followed by very limited leafing thereafter. We measured the rate of photosynthesis, chlorophyll a fluorescence, energy quenching and PSII functions during the leaf ontogeny process. Observations were taken up to 35 days after opening of lamina (DAOL). Significant increase in the synthesis and accumulation of photosynthetic pigments but negative net photosynthesis was noticed during initial days of the ontogeny. The leaf moved from heterotrophy to autotrophy with gradual improvement of PSII functions. The ratio of intercellular CO2 (C i) and ambient CO2 (C a) showed significant change at ≥11 DAOL. Increase in the age of the leaf (between 5 and 28 DAOL) caused decrease in O-J rise and corresponding increase in J-I and I-P rise as well as of fluorescence maximum (F M) of the OJIP curve. The improvement of the electron transport components of the donor side of PSII was seen with increase in the functional oxygen evolving complex. The functional improvements of the donor and acceptor side of PSII during leaf ontogeny are discussed. The leaf ontogeny in Saraca asoca usually occurs once in a year and involves variation in PSII function. The developing leaves metabolically switch from heterotrophy to autotrophy. During leaf development, the carotenoids are accumulated earlier than chlorophylls. With the development of leaf, the PSII function improves leading to increased efficiency of oxygen evolving complex and photoelectron transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Putrescine enhances microshoot regeneration in Turiaçu pineapple. • Nodular cluster induction boosts propagation efficiency. • Morphoanatomical insights shed light on cluster development. • Nodule clusters offer a promising method for pineapple propagation. Nodular clusters are a morphogenetic pathway used in the in vitro propagation of Bromeliaceae due to their high responsiveness in the regeneration of microshoots. Additionally, endogenous polyamines, especially putrescine, may contribute to the induction of these nodular clusters. However, the potential effects of this regulator on the regeneration of microshoots when applied to explants are unclear, especially in traditional pineapple cultivars such as "Turiaçu". Therefore, our objective here was to induce and characterize the morphoanatomy of nodular clusters in combinations of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and putrescine (PUT) in "Turiaçu" pineapple. Leaf segments induced in culture medium supplemented with 4 μM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 8 μM BAP, and 100 μM PUT resulted in an induction rate of 56 %, with the formation of microshoots via nodular clusters, increased length, and the number of leaves per microshoot. Morphoanatomical studies revealed that in the medium with 4 μM NAA, 8 μM BAP, and 100 μM PUT, the clusters presented a voluminous size, microshoots with leaves, and the development of new leaves along the base of the explant, and the formation of meristemoids with small cells arranged in a spiral. The results indicate that auxins and cytokinins combined with exogenous putrescine are efficient for inducing nodule clusters. Thus, exogenous putrescine improves the efficiency of microshoot regeneration by nodular clusters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaf-trait variation has traditionally been focused on both within and among species along environmental gradients, while leaf age has received less attention. By measuring leaf morphological, stomatal, and stoichiometric traits of 40 coexisting woody species in temperate forest in northern China, we analyzed their variation pattern and the correlations among different plant life forms and leaf age. We found that leaf age has significant effects on leaf functional traits. The young leaves of both shrub and tree species revealed a lower stoma density (SD) and a higher stoma length (SL), stoma width (SW), and leaf N content (LNC) than mature leaves. Shrub species have a higher SLA and SD than tree species for both young and mature leaves. The traits of young leaves generally revealed a higher variation than those of mature leaves. Although correlations between traits are similar between young leaves and mature leaves, the slopes of the SLA–SD and SD–LNC relationships were significantly affected by leaf age. These findings elucidate the adaptive changes of leaf traits during leaf maturation and underscore the trade-off between stomatal safety and efficiency, as well as the trade-off between leaf hydraulic and economic traits in temperate woody species during leaf development. We conclude that variation in leaf traits with age may play a potentially important role in understanding the ecological function of woody species in temperate forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selecting seedlings of varying sizes and effectively managing root pruning are key challenges in transplantation. However, the effects of seedling size and root pruning on transplantation outcomes are not fully understood. This study classified one-year-old Populus 'Beilinxiongzhu-01' seedlings into three size categories based on height: large (308.75 ± 9.66 cm), medium (238.00 ± 7.71 cm), and small (138.92 ± 7.18 cm). In early March of the subsequent year, root pruning was applied with varying intensities based on root collar diameter: low (15 times), medium (7.5 times), and high (3.75 times). A control group without pruning was also included. Over the year, key phenological and morphological traits were monitored. The results showed that (1) root pruning significantly impacted the phenology of seedlings, accelerating root emergence, delaying early leaf phenology, increasing the dieback rate, and postponing end-of-season defoliation. Mortality and the rapid growth phase were not significantly affected. Larger seedlings exhibited earlier end-of-season defoliation and higher dieback rates early in the growing season, while smaller seedlings advanced in early leaf development. (2) Except under low or no pruning, root pruning reduced seedling height (H), diameter at breast height (DBH), and root collar diameter (RCD). However, across all treatments, these indicators remained higher in larger seedlings compared to smaller ones. Under medium- and high-intensity pruning, smaller seedlings exhibited higher relative growth rates and larger leaf areas than larger seedlings, with the reduction in these variables becoming more pronounced as seedlings increased in size. Notably, only larger seedlings demonstrated a reduction in maximum growth rate, suggesting greater vulnerability to root pruning. In summary, root pruning induced significant phenological and morphological differences across seedling sizes. While smaller seedlings showed some response to pruning, larger seedlings experienced more pronounced phenological disruptions and growth inhibition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), the second most important vegetable crop globally, faces a significant threat from various viral diseases. A newly emerging disease, characterised by distinctive shoestring symptoms on leaves and the development of unripe, small, and hard fruit, poses a serious challenge to tomato cultivation in India. An initial survey in an experimental field revealed more than 50% of the plants displayed symptoms of the shoestring disease, resulting in substantial reductions in fruit yield and quality. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and molecular analyses identified an isolate of the tomato mottle mosaic virus (ToMMV) in the affected plants. When the partially purified virus was mechanically inoculated into tomato cv. Pusa Ruby plants, it reproduced the characteristic shoestring symptoms, confirming its causal relationship with the disease. Notably, the present shoestring isolate of ToMMV (ToMMV-Tss) was found to induce similar shoestring symptoms in most of the major commercial tomato varieties when inoculated under controlled experimental conditions in the glasshouse, indicating its aggressive nature. Host range studies demonstrated that the ToMMV-Tss can infect several solanaceous species, while cucurbitaceous hosts remained unaffected. Moreover, the virus was found to be seed-transmissible, with a small percentage of seedlings from infected plants displaying symptoms. These findings underscore the significant impact of ToMMV on tomato production in India and emphasise the need for reliable diagnostic tools and effective management strategies to curb the spread and mitigate the impact of this virus on commercial tomato cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaves are the most significant parts of forage crops such as alfalfa. Senescence is the terminal stage of leaf development and is controlled by an integrated myriad of endogenous signals and environmental stimuli. WRKY transcription factors (TFs) play essential roles in regulating leaf senescence; however, only a few studies on the analysis and identification of the WRKY TF family in Medicago Sativa have been reported. In this study, we identified 198 WRKY family members from the alfalfa (M. sativa L.) cultivar 'XinjiangDaye' using phylogenetic analysis and categorized them into three subfamilies, Groups I, II, and III, based on their structural characteristics. Group II members were further divided into five subclasses. In addition, several hormone- and stress-related cis-acting elements were identified in the promoter regions of MsWRKYs. Furthermore, 14 aging-related MsWRKYs genes from a previous transcriptome in our laboratory were selected for RT-qPCR validation of their expression patterns, and subsequently cloned for overexpression examination. Finally, MsWRKY5, MsWRKY66, MsWRKY92, and MsWRKY141 were confirmed to cause leaf yellowing in Nicotiana benthaminana using a transient expression system. Our findings lay a groundwork for further studies on the mechanism of M. sativa leaf aging and for the creation of new germplasm resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Plant breeding played a very important role in transforming strawberries from being a niche crop with a small geographical footprint into an economically important crop grown across the planet. But even modern marker assisted breeding takes a considerable amount of time, over multiple plant generations, to produce a plant with desirable traits. As a quicker alternative, plants with desirable traits can be raised through tissue culture by doing precise genetic manipulations. Overexpression of morphogenic regulators previously known for meristem development, the transcription factors Growth-Regulating Factors (GRFs) and the GRF-Interacting Factors (GIFs), provided an efficient strategy for easier regeneration and transformation in multiple crops. Results We present here a comprehensive protocol for the diploid strawberry Fragaria vesca Hawaii 4 (strawberry) regeneration and transformation under control condition as compared to ectopic expression of different GRF4-GIF1 chimeras from different plant species. We report that ectopic expression of Vitis vinifera VvGRF4-GIF1 provides significantly higher regeneration efficiency during re-transformation over wild-type plants. On the other hand, deregulated expression of miRNA resistant version of VvGRF4-GIF1 or Triticum aestivum (wheat) TaGRF4-GIF1 resulted in abnormalities. Transcriptomic analysis between the different chimeric GRF4-GIF1 lines indicate that differential expression of FvExpansin might be responsible for the observed pleiotropic effects. Similarly, cytokinin dehydrogenase/oxygenase and cytokinin responsive response regulators also showed differential expression indicating GRF4-GIF1 pathway playing important role in controlling cytokinin homeostasis. Conclusion Our data indicate that ectopic expression of Vitis vinifera VvGRF4-GIF1 chimera can provide significant advantage over wild-type plants during strawberry regeneration without producing any pleiotropic effects seen for the miRNA resistant VvGRF4-GIF1 or TaGRF4-GIF1.

Societal Impact Statement Grapevine leaves are emblematic of the strong visual associations people make with plants. Leaf shape is immediately recognizable at a glance, and therefore, this is used to distinguish grape varieties. In an era of computationally enabled machine learning‐derived representations of reality, we can revisit how we view and use the shapes and forms that plants display to understand our relationship with them. Using computational approaches combined with time‐honored methods, we can predict theoretical leaves that are possible, enabling us to understand the genetics, development, and environmental responses of plants in new ways. Summary Grapevine leaves are a model morphometric system. Sampling over 10,000 leaves using dozens of landmarks, the genetic, developmental, and environmental basis of leaf shape has been studied and a morphospace for the genus Vitis predicted. Yet, these representations of leaf shape fail to capture the exquisite features of leaves at high resolution. We measure the shapes of 139 grapevine leaves using 1672 pseudo‐landmarks derived from 90 homologous landmarks with Procrustean approaches. From hand traces of the vasculature and blade, we have derived a method to automatically detect landmarks and place pseudo‐landmarks that results in a high‐resolution representation of grapevine leaf shape. Using polynomial models, we create continuous representations of leaf development in 10 Vitis spp. We visualize a high‐resolution morphospace in which genetic and developmental sources of leaf shape variance are orthogonal to each other. Using classifiers, Vitis vinifera, Vitis spp., rootstock and dissected leaf varieties as well as developmental stages are accurately predicted. Theoretical eigenleaf representations sampled from across the morphospace that we call synthetic leaves can be classified using models. By predicting a high‐resolution morphospace and delimiting the boundaries of leaf shapes that can plausibly be produced within the genus Vitis, we can sample synthetic leaves with realistic qualities. From an ampelographic perspective, larger numbers of leaves sampled at lower resolution can be projected onto this high‐resolution space, or, synthetic leaves can be used to increase the robustness and accuracy of machine learning classifiers.

Societal Impact Statement: Grapevine leaves are emblematic of the strong visual associations people make with plants. Leaf shape is immediately recognizable at a glance, and therefore, this is used to distinguish grape varieties. In an era of computationally enabled machine learning‐derived representations of reality, we can revisit how we view and use the shapes and forms that plants display to understand our relationship with them. Using computational approaches combined with time‐honored methods, we can predict theoretical leaves that are possible, enabling us to understand the genetics, development, and environmental responses of plants in new ways. Summary: Grapevine leaves are a model morphometric system. Sampling over 10,000 leaves using dozens of landmarks, the genetic, developmental, and environmental basis of leaf shape has been studied and a morphospace for the genus Vitis predicted. Yet, these representations of leaf shape fail to capture the exquisite features of leaves at high resolution.We measure the shapes of 139 grapevine leaves using 1672 pseudo‐landmarks derived from 90 homologous landmarks with Procrustean approaches. From hand traces of the vasculature and blade, we have derived a method to automatically detect landmarks and place pseudo‐landmarks that results in a high‐resolution representation of grapevine leaf shape. Using polynomial models, we create continuous representations of leaf development in 10 Vitis spp.We visualize a high‐resolution morphospace in which genetic and developmental sources of leaf shape variance are orthogonal to each other. Using classifiers, Vitis vinifera, Vitis spp., rootstock and dissected leaf varieties as well as developmental stages are accurately predicted. Theoretical eigenleaf representations sampled from across the morphospace that we call synthetic leaves can be classified using models.By predicting a high‐resolution morphospace and delimiting the boundaries of leaf shapes that can plausibly be produced within the genus Vitis, we can sample synthetic leaves with realistic qualities. From an ampelographic perspective, larger numbers of leaves sampled at lower resolution can be projected onto this high‐resolution space, or, synthetic leaves can be used to increase the robustness and accuracy of machine learning classifiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant organs achieve their specific size and shape through the coordination of cell division and cell expansion, processes that are profoundly influenced by environmental cues. Cytokinesis during cell division depends on the position of the cytokinetic wall, but how this process responses to environment fluctuations remains underexplored. Here, we investigated a regulatory module involving C2H2‐type zinc finger protein (C2H2‐ZFP) in leaf morphology during drought stress. A total of 123 C2H2‐ZFP members were identified through a comparative genome survey in Populus alba × P. glandulosa '84K'. Among them, PagSUPa, an orthologous gene of Arabidopsis SUPERMAN, was selected due to its responsiveness to drought stress and was further confirmed to play a role in leaf development. Phenotypic characterization and cellular analysis revealed that PagSUPa fine‐tunes the duration of cell proliferation in the adaxial epidermis, thereby influencing leaf morphology by modulating leaf adaxial‐abaxial polarity. Additionally, we found that PagSUPa directly suppresses the expression of PHRAGMOPLAST ORIENTING KINESIN1 (PagPOK1) and PagPOK2, genes encoding proteins involved in phragmoplast orientation and position, which results in impaired cytokinesis and cell wall organization. This study provides novel insights into the regulatory network governed by the SUP gene during leaf development, specifically in relation to cell division. Summary statement: SUPERMAN, a C2H2‐type zinc finger protein, targets PHRAGMOPLAST ORIENTING KINESIN genes encoding proteins involved in phragmoplast orientation and position, to negatively regulate cell division during leaf development in Populus alba × P. glandulosa '84K'. It provides novel insights into the regulatory network governed by the SUPERMAN gene during leaf development, specifically in relation to cell division. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Barley development from seedling to flowering involves both external and internal changes, the latter requiring microscopic observation. Internal changes allow for the classification of preflowering development into three phases: vegetative, early reproductive, and late reproductive. Genetic and environmental factors influence the duration of these phases, impacting grain yield. Photoperiod-sensitivity genes PPD-H1 play amajor role in flowering time, affecting adaptation; however, the effect might also be direct (beyond affecting phenology). In this paper, we aimed to assess how PPD-H1 alleles affect barley development, including the progression of growth phases, leaf emergence, tillering dynamics, and spikelet development. Two experiments (field and controlled conditions) were conducted with a factorial combination of (i) four near-isogenic lines (NILs) for PPD-H1 alleles (ppd-H1 or Ppd-H1) under two contrasting PHYC genetic backgrounds (PhyC-l and PhyC-e) and (ii) two photoperiod conditions (short and long days). As expected, longer photoperiods led to a shorter growth cycle. All subphases of time to flowering, final leaf number, and phyllochron were affected by photoperiod. The effects of PPD-H1 on flowering time depended on the PHYC genetic backgrounds and photoperiod conditions. PPD-H1 effects on flowering time were associated with leaf number and phyllochron; the interplay between leaf number and phyllochron affected mainly the late reproductive phase. We also found that although PPD-H1 did not affect the phyllochron of the first six leaves, the phyllochron of leaves appearing later, when grown under a short photoperiod, was consistently increased in lines carrying the ppd-H1 allele. Tillering dynamics exhibited variability, but PPD-H1 did not affect the final spike number under a 24-h photoperiod. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of nanoparticles into plant cryopreservation protocols holds great promise for improving the survival rates and recovery potential of explants. This study aimed to verify the effect of nanoparticles on the ex-vitro performance of cryopreservation-derived plants. Lamprocapnos spectabilis (L.) Fukuhara (bleeding heart) 'Gold Heart' and 'Valentine' cultivars were used as the plant material. The encapsulation-vitrification cryopreservation protocol of shoot tips included the preculture, encapsulation, dehydration, storage in liquid nitrogen, rewarming, and recovery steps. Gold (AuNPs), silver (AgNPs), or zinc oxide (ZnONPs) nanoparticles were added at varying concentrations, either into the preculture medium or the protective bead matrix during encapsulation. After the in vitro recovery, the plants were transferred to the glasshouse and subjected to detailed biometrical, biochemical and cytogenetic analyses. Nanoparticles had no evident effect on the acclimatization efficiency (80–100% survival) and leaf number in L. spectabilis 'Gold Heart'. Nonetheless, shoots developed from alginate beads supplemented with 5 ppm AuNPs were twice as long as the control, while the leaves of plants grown on the preculture medium with ZnONPs contained significantly more chlorophyll and had higher Leaf Soil-Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) values. Moreover, several NPs treatments stimulated the development of leaves, including their surface area, length, and perimeter. Higher ZnONPs levels enhanced also the replication process, resulting in higher nuclear DNA content. As for L. spectabilis 'Valentine', alginate augmentation with 5 ppm AgNPs or 5 ppm ZnONPs stimulated the elongation of shoots. There was also a tendency suggesting a positive influence of 5 ppm AgNPs in the alginate bead matrix on foliar growth. The effect of nanoparticles on the content of flavonoids, anthocyanins, and stress markers in the plants varied depending on the treatment and cultivar, but also on the organ studied (leaf or stem). Overall, L. spectabilis 'Gold Heart' was more stress-tolerant and genetically stable than 'Valentine' judging by the activity of Photosystem II (PSII) and flow cytometric analyses, respectively. The complex effects of nanoparticles on survival, biometric parameters, physiological responses, and cytogenetic events underscore the intricate interplay between nanoparticles and plant systems. Nonetheless, our research confirmed the positive effect of nanoparticles on the ex-vitro growth and development of L. spectabilis plants after cryostorage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a condition that impacts women from various ethnic backgrounds and social strata. The precise epidemiology of the disease is difficult to determine due to inconsistent data; however, available information suggests that 70-75% of women will experience VVC at least once in their lifetime. Common symptoms include itching, vaginal discomfort, pain during intercourse, external pain during urination, and unusual discharge. Methods The current study investigates the anticandidal properties of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extracts. It compares the anticandidal effects of aqueous and methanolic leaf extracts, as well as green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs/SNPs) derived from methanolic neem leaf extract, against Candida albicans isolated from clinical samples of patients with vaginal infection. Results The results showed that AgNPs exhibited a stronger inhibitory effect than both the aqueous and methanol extracts. The methanol extract demonstrated anticandidal activity against C. albicans, while the aqueous extracts had no effect. The anticandidal effect of AgNPs was evaluated using the agar well diffusion method. A topical formulation was created by incorporating the optimized AgNPs into an ointment base, and the in vitro anticandidal assay of this ointment was conducted using the same agar well diffusion method. The inhibitory effectiveness of the AgNPs-infused ointment was found to be comparable to that of a commercial product against Candida albicans. Conclusion Overall, the findings suggest that this formulation has potential anticandidal effects against Candida albicans responsible for Vulvovaginal candidiasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]