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The importance of dietary calcium intake in bone metabolism has been well established; however, it is still less investigated in health-related components, especially addressing muscle performance. This study aims to compare dietary calcium intake and its relationship with cardiovascular and muscular performance in young athletes (Lacrosse, Baseball, and soccer players). In this cross-sectional study, 95 participants (ages 18 to 30) participated during two visits to the Human Performance Laboratory. Participants completed body composition, lower and upper body muscle performance, cardiorespiratory protocol, and questionnaires related to dietary calcium intake. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the difference in the calcium intake between groups. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between dietary calcium intake and muscle performance variables. Further, linear regression was used to assess the predictive value of calcium variables on overall muscle performance. Lacrosse players had significantly higher calcium intake than Baseball and soccer players (p < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between dietary calcium intake and the number of push-ups (r = 0.28; p = 0.03). CIBW and CI explained 4.3% and nearly 25% of the change in MPI, respectively (p < 0.001). This suggests the possible role of dietary calcium intake in enhancing health-related fitness components and highlights the need to explore its involvement in muscle-bone crosstalk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared the mechanical and physiological load placed on Division I female collegiate lacrosse athletes (1) with and without hormone contraceptive (HC) use and (2) with and without menstruation during training and games. Athletes' (20.6 ± 1.5 years, HC users = 9, naturally cycling (NC) athletes = 9) workloads—total distance traveled (TD, m), max speed (km∙h−1), accelerations (repetitions), decelerations (repetitions), and high-intensity distance (HID, m)—were measured through VX Sport wearable microtechnology in training sessions (n = 87/athlete) and games (n = 17/athlete). Analyses showed no statistical group differences based on HC use or not, and no differences during menstruation versus non-menstruation for training or games. However, while not statistically different, athletes taking HCs performed worse during menstruation, with a 5.1% decline in decelerations, 3.4% decline in TD and HID, 1.2% decline in max speed, and 1% decline in accelerations. NC athletes did not show this same decline with menses. Given that withdrawal bleeding exacerbates performance reduction of HC users, it may be beneficial for these athletes to consider skipping their withdrawal bleed if it is likely to coincide with a game. Further research needs to be carried out to see if these trends are consistent across other female athletes in other sports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine the effects of ball carriage on change of direction speed in club-level male lacrosse players using an L-run test when compared with two control conditions "no-ball, with-stick" and "no-ball, no-stick". Thirteen participants (M±SD; age = 27 ± 7.5 years; height = 179.5 ± 5.8 cm; body mass = 82.9 ± 11.3 kg) conducted a randomised, counterbalanced study. Each completed six trials, performing two repetitions under three conditions: "no-ball, no-stick" (NBNS), "no-ball, with-stick" (NBWS), and "with-ball, with-stick" (WBWS). L-run completion times were not different between NBWS (6.30 ± 0.25 s) and WBWS (6.38 ± 0.28 s) (p = 0.452, Mdiff = 0.07 s, 95% CIdiff [−0.06 to 0.20 s]). There was also no difference from the NBNS (6.22 ± 0.26 s) to the NBWS conditions (p = 0.095, Mdiff = 0.09 s, 95% CIdiff [−0.01 to 0.18 s]). However, completion time was significantly longer in the WBWS condition compared to the NBNS condition (p = 0.029, Mdiff = 0.16 s, 95% CIdiff [0.02 to 0.30 s]). Therefore, carrying a ball in a stick may negatively influence change of direction compared to with no ball or stick. Coaches should implement the lacrosse stick and cradling to better replicate the sport-specific mechanical demands of match-play. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concussion screening among collegiate lacrosse athletes is a major safety priority. Although attention has been directed at concussion management following injury, less is known about the association between cognition and balance during preseason screening. The purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between balance and neurocognition among collegiate male lacrosse players and to examine predictive determinants of postural stability. Participants included a convenience sample of 49 male collegiate Division 3 lacrosse players who completed a demographic survey and performed the immediate postconcussion test (ImPACT) and instrumented Sensory Organization Test (SOT). There was a significant association between balance SOT performance and both verbal memory (r = .59, p < .01) and visual motor speed scores (r = .43, p < .05). Significant correlations between verbal memory and SOT Conditions 2, 5, and 6 were also noted (all p < .05). Verbal memory predicted 33% of the variance in the SOT composite balance score (p < .001). Our results indicate a significant relationship exists between postural stability and both verbal memory and visual processing speed among collegiate male lacrosse players and supports vestibulocortical associations. Findings warrant ongoing performance and executive function tracking and can serve as a conduit for integrated sensorimotor and dual-task training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lacrosse players are required to perform multiple sprints and changes of direction over the course of a game. These skills are reliant on the ability to rapidly produce lower-body force to be successful. Currently, little research examining the relationship between specific performance indicators and relative strength within this population exists. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between measures of lower-body strength and power to sprinting and change of direction speed (CODS) among male lacrosse players. Archived data for (n= 18) NCAA Division II male lacrosse athletes were used for this analysis. Lower-body strength was assessed using a one-repetition maximum back squat. Power was assessed using a countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and standing long jump (SLJ). Sprint speed at 10 and 30 yds (i.e., 9.14 and 27.43 m) and CODS (i.e., T-Test (TT) and modified T-Test (MTT) were also assessed. Pearson's correlation was used to determine relationships between lower-body strength and power to sprint speed and CODS. Significant relationships (r = -0.51 - -0.64, p = 0.05) were discovered between all measures of power and CODS, as well as SLJ and sprint speed (r = -0.51; p = 0.05 and -0.67; p =-0.01, respectively). No significant relationships between relative strength and any measures of sprint speed or CODS were discovered. Although relative strength was not directly related to sprint speed or CODS performance, it may indirectly affect these measures based on its relationship to power, and power's relationship to sprint and CODS performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

World Lacrosse Sixes has only been developed recently, with very little known about the demands, therefore the purpose of this study is to identify competitive international match demands. 17 international male players (26.00 ± 3.08 years, 181.47 ± 6.75 cm, 89.84 ± 8.93 kg) participated across 13 international matches (n = 111). GPS technology sampling at 10 Hz was used to calculate: total distance, average velocity, max velocity, high-speed running distance (5.5-7 m/s-1), very high-speed running distance (>7.00 m/s-1), acceleration efforts (>2 m/s-2), deceleration efforts (>2 m/s-2). Peak 1, 2 and 3-minute distances were determined using a 1-minute rolling average. Mean and SD for each match characteristics were calculated. High absolute (2582.56 ± 438.20 m) and relative distance (117.29 ± 10.61 m/min) were covered during international sixes lacrosse matches, with a high frequency of acceleration (33.21 ± 12.01) and deceleration efforts (27.63 ± 10.75) greater 2 m/s-2. The maximum distance covered in 1, 2 and 3 minutes was identified as 161.32 ± 43.73 m, 232.29 ± 91.56 m and 344.71 ± 44.04 m, respectively. The maximum distance identifies the worst-case scenarios with regards to match demands players could be exposed too. Sixes lacrosse (SL) is a demanding variation of the sport, with high intensity efforts involving frequent accelerations and decelerations. The intensity of movement demands for SL exceeds previously identified demands for FL, although SL has a reduced volume of lower intensity work. The data presented could be used by practitioners to design training and training drills to meet the greater physical demands experienced within SL to optimally prepare players to cope with the increased movement demands of other versions of the lacrosse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 19-year-old male collegiate lacrosse player suffered an acute singular parasymphysis fracture of the mandible when he was struck in the facemask of his helmet by a lacrosse ball during practice. The fracture was confirmed via panoramic radiography and treated with a closed reduction under local anesthetic by looping a 26-gauge wire around the two right incisors and the right cuspid. This approach to managing the fracture was taken instead of an open reduction and plate application to be less invasive with the hope of a faster recovery and fewer complications. The fracture healed and aligned properly, and after six weeks, the patient was cleared for competition and returned to full activities, with no complications. The importance of this case report is to show that closed reduction is a viable, if not preferred, treatment for mandibular fractures in certain cases, and healthcare professionals, such as athletic trainers, working with lacrosse players should be familiar with this treatment strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field lacrosse requires sudden directional changes and rapid acceleration/deceleration. The capacity to perform these skills is dependent on explosive muscle force production. Limited research exists on the potential of sprint interval training (SIT) to impact explosive muscle force production in field lacrosse players. The purpose of this study is to examine SIT, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, on the rate of torque development (RTD), contractile impulse, and muscle function in female high school field lacrosse players (n = 12; 16 ± 1 yrs.). SIT was performed three times per week, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, for 12 weeks. Right lower-limb muscle performance was assessed pre-, mid-, and post-SIT training via isometric and isokinetic concentric knee extensor contractions. Outcomes included RTD (Nm·s−1), contractile impulse (Nm·s), and peak torque (Nm). RTD for the first 50 ms of contraction improved by 42% by midseason and remained elevated at postseason (p = 0.004, effect size (ES) = −577.3 to 66.5). Contractile impulse demonstrated a training effect across 0–50 ms (42%, p = 0.004, ES = −1.4 to 0.4), 0–100 ms (33%, p = 0.018, ES = 3.1 to 0.9), and 0–200 ms (22%, p = 0.031, ES = −7.8 to 1.6). Isometric (0 rad·s−1) and concentric (3.1 rad·s−1) strength increased by 20% (p = 0.002, ES = −60.8 to −20.8) and 9% (p = 0.038, ES = −18.2 to 0.0) from SIT and field-lacrosse-specific training, respectively (p < 0.05). SIT, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, enhanced lower-limb skeletal muscle performance, which may enable greater sport-specific gains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spontaneous rupture of the extensor pollicis longus (EPL) tendon at the wrist has been reported with predisposing factors to include distal radius fractures, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic or local steroids, and repetitive abnormal motion of the wrist joint. We present a case of an 18-year-old college lacrosse player without history of known predisposing factors who presented with an acute inability to extend the interphalangeal (IP) joint of his right thumb. Preoperative musculoskeletal ultrasound demonstrated rupture of the EPL tendon proximal to the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint of the thumb. A tendon transfer was therefore performed, where the extensor indicis proprius (EIP) was surgically rerouted to reconstruct the ruptured EPL. The athlete eventually returned to competition without sequela. We suggest that the tendon rupture was secondary to repetitive stick checking during play, causing microtrauma to his exposed dorsal wrist. Lacrosse team physicians, athletic trainers, and equipment managers should be aware of this injury mechanism and ensure that their players, and attackmen in particular, are equipped with gloves which adequately pad the dorsal wrist to decrease the risk of microtrauma to the EPL tendon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay assesses the merits of life writing in sport history as it is represented in one rare document, the Record, a diary-notebook-scrapbook constructed by lacrosse player Frank J. Grace (1878-1954) beginning in 1907. A talented athlete, Grace was a professional "tourist" who suited up for teams in Ottawa, Hamilton, Toronto, Chatham, Orillia, and Winnipeg during the twilight of Canadian lacrosse; that is, in the years preceding World War I. The highlight of Grace's career was his selection to the All-Canada Lacrosse Team that traveled to play 16 games against teams in Australia in July and August of 1907, which prompted him to begin recording his life in the sport. This study makes sense of the Record by examining its making as an historical document, by placing it in the context of its times, and by interpreting the story it tells about Grace's life in the game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Medial tibial stress syndrome is a common sports related injury. Altered foot kinematics can be a risk factor for the injury. Since foot segments can move independently, intersegment coordination is important for proper foot function. This study aimed to compare the foot intersegmental coordination pattern and single segment kinematics between female lacrosse players with and without a history of medial tibial stress syndrome during drop jump. Methods: Twelve players with a medial tibial stress syndrome history and 12 players with no history were enrolled. Foot kinematics, including angle at landing and peak angle and excursion at the rearfoot, midfoot, and forefoot during single-leg drop jumps were analysed. Each segment motion data from landing to leaping was time-scaled to 100% to analyse the intersegmental coordination with a modified vector coding technique. Instant intersegmental coordination of every 1% was classified into four patterns (in-phase, two segments rotate in the same direction with similar amplitudes; anti-phase, two segments rotate in opposite directions; proximal phase, proximal segment dominantly rotates in the same direction compared to the distal segment; and distal phase, distal segment dominantly rotates in the same direction compared to the proximal segment). The percentage of intersegmental coordination pattern and kinematics in each segment were compared between the groups using the Student's t test. Results: Groups with a history of medial stress syndrome showed a significantly higher percentage of proximal phase between the rearfoot and midfoot in the sagittal (Mean ± SD; history, 52.2 ± 17.9%, no history, 29.3 ± 16.7%; p = 0.004) and coronal planes (history, 40.3 ± 22.0%, no history, 15.9 ± 9.1%; p = 0.004). Dorsiflexion excursion (history, 34.5 ± 4.5°, no history, 29.6 ± 2.1°; p = 0.003) were significantly larger in a history of medial tibial stress syndrome group compared to no history group. Conclusions: Rearfoot dominant motion pattern relative to the midfoot may be related to medial tibial stress syndrome. Intersegmental coordination analysis may be useful for detecting abnormal foot coordination patterns. Also, stabilization for the rearfoot may be required rather than the midfoot for intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have confirmed that the temporal attentional control created by the repetition of stimulus–response compatibility (SRC) tasks was transferred to shooting skills in lacrosse players. In the current study, we investigated whether combining motor imagery training with SRC tasks could enhance the scoring ability of lacrosse players. We grouped 33 male lacrosse players into three groups: an SRC task and motor imagery group (referred as to SRC + Image), an SRC task group, and a control group. Players in the first two groups underwent five sessions of 200 SRC task trials. In addition, the SRC + Image group completed five sessions of motor-imagery training. The control group underwent no training interventions. All three groups performed a lacrosse shooting test and a Simon task before and after training sessions to assess the magnitude of the interference effects of the various types of training they underwent. The results of the Simon task showed that repetition of 1,000 trials was enough to create a short-term representation with the incompatible special mapping being transferred to a dynamic activity like lacrosse shooting. Moreover, a combination of a computer-based Type 2 task and motor-imagery training could effectively increase players' scoring abilities in a field of large spatial conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Boys' lacrosse (LAX), a full contact sport allowing body and stick checking, mandates hard shell helmets with full face masks. Girls' LAX, which prohibits body checking and whose sphere rule is supposed to prevent stick checking to the head, allows optional flexible headgear with/without integrated eye protection. Whether the required boys' LAX helmets should also be mandated in girls' LAX has been debated. Methods: In this retrospective cohort study we used LAX concussion data from a national high school sports-related injury surveillance study to determine if girls' LAX players were at increased risk of concussion from stick or ball contact due to differences in helmet regulations by calculating the attributable risk and attributable risk percent (AR%) for concussion resulting from ball or stick impacts. Results: From 2008-09 through 2018–19, boys' LAX players sustained 614 concussions during 1,318,278 athletic exposures (AEs) (4.66 per 10,000 AEs) and girls' LAX players sustained 384 concussions during 983,291 AEs (3.91 per 10,000 AEs). For boys, athlete-athlete contact was the most common mechanism of concussion accounting for 66.4% of all concussions, while stick or ball contact accounted for 23.5%. For girls, stick or ball contact accounted for 72.7% of all concussions, while athlete-athlete contact accounted for 19.8%. Concussion rates from stick or ball contact were significantly higher in girls vs. boys (RR = 2.60, 95% CI 2.12–3.18). The attributable risk associated with playing girls' vs. boys' LAX for concussion resulting from stick or ball contact was 1.75 concussions per 10,000 AEs (95% CI 1.37–2.12) and the AR% was 61.5% (95% CI 52.9–68.5). An estimated 44.7% of all girls' LAX concussions could have been prevented if girls' LAX players wore the helmet mandated in boys' LAX. Conclusions: Girls' LAX players who are allowed, but not required, to wear a flexible headgear are at increased risk of concussions from stick or ball impacts compared to boys' LAX players, who are required to wear a hard shell helmet with full face mask. Additional research is needed to determine if there are any defendable arguments to continue justifying restricting girls' LAX players access to this effective piece of protective equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, dramatic changes in lacrosse stick design are believed to be associated with changes in the play of the game; however, there is a limited understanding of how the lacrosse stick propels the ball. We predicted that the lacrosse stick would perform as a passive extension of the player's hand and hypothesized that ball shot speed would be equal to the speed at the tip of the stick. Ball and shot kinematics of 16 male and 16 female lacrosse players using four various stick models were tracked at 250 Hz. The speed of the ball was compared with the speed at the tip of the stick, calculated by assuming the stick behaved as a rigid body. Ball shot speeds with men's sticks were on average 3.5 m/s (7.8 mph) faster than the calculated speed at the stick tip, and ball shot speeds with women's sticks were on average 0.7 m/s (1.5 mph) faster than stick tip speed. Some lacrosse stick models can shoot the ball significantly faster than predicted when considering the stick as a rigid, passive extension of the player's hands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the sport of lacrosse has evolved dramatically over the last few decades and is presently the fastest growing team sport in the United States, the current specifications for balls date back to 1943. The purpose of this study was to see if various commercially available field lacrosse balls meet these specifications and to determine additional mechanical properties of the ball that may more completely characterize ball performance. Eight models from several manufacturers were tested. Seven models were designated for game play, while one model was promoted as a practice ball. In accordance with the specifications, the mass, circumference, and rebound height were recorded for one dozen balls from each model. The load required to compress the balls 0.0125 m and the coefficient of restitution (COR) with an incident speed of 26.80 m/s were also determined. We found that some balls met several of the specifications, but none of the models had every ball meet all the specifications. For the two measures of ball liveliness, rebound height had a weak correlation with COR. Ball compression loads averaged about 750 N over most models, but were almost 85% less for the practice model. It appears that current governing body specifications are outdated, as no ball model we tested met these specifications. The determination of ball liveliness at more realistic speeds should also be taken into account. Since balls with low compression loads can pass through face protectors worn by lacrosse players, the sport's governing bodies may wish to consider a specification on ball compression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Testicular rupture after blunt scrotal trauma is characterized by rupture of the tunica albuginea and extrusion of seminiferous tubules. This is a serious injury and appropriate evaluation and management are necessary both for symptom control, but also for preservation of the testicle. Clinical examination of the scrotum following trauma is difficult and may result in incorrect triage of patients for surgical exploration. This case study describes the assessment and management of blunt testicular trauma in an adolescent lacrosse player. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The purpose of this study was to compare nutritional intakes against recommended values as well as between the perceived intake and needs of female lacrosse players. Methods: Twenty female NCAA Division II lacrosse players (20.0 ± 1.7 yrs., 169.7 ± 6.4 cm; 69.9 ± 10.7 kg; 27.5 ± 3.3% fat) completed a four-day monitoring period during in-season. Athletes were outfitted with an activity monitor over four consecutive days and completed four-day food records to assess total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and dietary intake. Body composition was assessed and used to calculate recommended dietary intakes. Actual intake was self-reported using a commercially available food tracking program (MyFitnessPal©, USA). Daily average values were calculated for total and relative energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat intake. These values were then compared to published nutritional recommendations established by the International Society of Sports Nutrition. Appropriate pairwise comparisons were made depending on the normality of the distribution. Results: Athletes ate significantly less than recommended values for energy, carbohydrates and protein. (p < 0.001). Significant discrepancies (p < 0.001) were also observed between perceptions of intake versus actual intake. Conclusions: Athletes significantly underestimated perceived intake of dietary fat and carbohydrate when compared to perceived needs. Massive standard deviations and ranges were observed, suggesting that some athletes lack a basic understanding of their daily needs. Results from this data suggest that collegiate athletes lack appropriate understanding of basic nutrition needs and could benefit from basic nutrition education as it pertains to their health and performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the relationship between sport-confidence and athletic performance. Fifty male lacrosse players competed against each other three times on three lacrosse skills. Sport-confidence was assessed before each trial using a modified version of the State Sport-Confidence Inventory (SSCI). Performance feedback was manipulated to boost confidence in some players and diminish it in others. Over trials, self-reported confidence increased with positive (winning) feedback and decreased with negative (losing) feedback, but lacrosse performance remained stable. When sport-confidence was treated as a subject variable, performance did not differ between players who were higher or lower in confidence. These results are inconsistent with the claim that confidence influences performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International Journal of Exercise Science 12(4): 1138-1148, 2019. This study determined the relationship of core stability with power production, agility, and dynamic stability of collegiate lacrosse players and whether core stability is more evident in these performance variables in either males or females. Twenty male and female collegiate lacrosse players (20.3 ± 1.0 years, 173.2 ± 11.8 cm, 72.6 ± 13.0 kg) performed the pro-agility shuttle, the countermovement jump (CMJ), the Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT), and prone, right lateral, and left lateral planks on two sessions-familiarization and testing. Independent T-tests were used to compare sexes. SPSS 24.0 was used; significance was accepted at p < 0.05. Pearson correlations were used to compare the relationship of core stability to the performance variables in participants. There was a significant relationship found between the prone plank and pro-agility shuttle in all participants (r = -0.50). No significant relationships were found between core stability and performance variables. A significant difference was found in the pro-agility shuttle (p = 0.001) and the CMJ (p = 0.001) but not in core stability or dynamic stability. Agility, power production, and dynamic stability were not related to core stability in neither male or female lacrosse players. There were no significant differences in core stability and dynamic stability between males and females. A significant difference was found in dynamic stability in the SEBT right leg and left leg composite scores between sexes. From these results, it is suggested that core stability may not directly influence the performance variables in collegiate male and female lacrosse players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Article contributes to the growing debate about the merits of sex segregation in sports by approaching sex segregation in sports as a public health issue. Participation in sports has profound consequences for women's health. Engagement in athletics affects physical fitness, disease prevention, self-esteem, mental wellness, eating disorders, and many other health-related issues. Sex segregation in sports reduces women's participation in sports and changes the nature of the sports in which women participate. Both of these issues have implications for the myriad health issues we discuss. The Article argues that analysis under the Equal Protection Clause of governmentally-imposed sex segregation must incorporate these consequences. Even where the government has plausible reasons for segregating sports by sex, those reasons may not be sufficient to survive intermediate scrutiny when the health consequences of segregation are taken into account. The Article does not argue that sports should never be segregated by sex. Rather, it argues that the correct analysis must take into account all the relevant considerations, including those affecting health. The Article proceeds as follows. Part I questions the default assumption of sex segregation in sports. Part II considers sex segregation as a public health issue, noting the relationship between sports participation and a variety of physical, mental, and emotional health issues for women. To the extent that sex segregation depresses or alters women's participation in sports for the worse, that issue is one implicating im portant public health considerations. Finally, Part III discusses the implications of treating sex segregation in sports as a public health issue, both for the law and for sports more broadly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the effects of a specific goal-setting program on physical performance over the course of a competitive athletic season. Subjects were 24 members of an NCAA Division III men's lacrosse team who were matched on ability and playing position and then randomly assigned to either a goal-setting or do-your-best control group. The experimenter met with each athlete at the beginning of the season to provide goals, as well as during the season to reevaluate the goals, if necessary. Performance was measured on offensive assists, offensive ground balls, defensive ground balls, and defensive clears. Manipulation checks revealed that players accepted their goals, felt their goals were realistic, and tried hard to reach their goals. Although statistical tests indicated no significant performance differences, the magnitude, direction, and consistency of the differences in favor of the goal group offers some support for the effectiveness of specific goals across an athletic season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the effects of a four-session psychological skills training (PST) workshop on self-reported knowledge, perceived importance, and use of goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and cognitive restructuring in a sample of male intercollegiate lacrosse players (n=49). In an interrupted time-series design with switching replications, subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Self-report data were collected on three occasions at 2-week intervals. Group 1 received PST during the first 2-week interval and Group 2 received PST during the second 2-week interval. The overall effectiveness of the PST workshop was supported by both between-subjects and within-subjects analyses. This study illustrates that controlled research can viably and ethically be conducted in applied sport settings. Limitations of the current study and directions for future PST outcome research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]