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The recalcitrance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) to eradication was related to achieving a nonreplicating (dormant) state and the increasing global burden of HIV coinfection. Consequently, understanding the knowledge and perception of the population at risk of tuberculosis-HIV infection is essential to designing a strategy of intervention embraced by the target population. A cross-sectional study was conducted among Nomads in Adamawa State, Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was employed to recruit consented participants. Self-administered questionnaires were used to gather the required information from 4 nomadic schoolteachers in each selected school. Data were entered into a Microsoft Excel sheet where trends and tables of collated data were developed. The findings show that only 13.5% of the participants expressed the correct perceptions of the complementary relationship between HIV and TB. More people in government employment (35%) understand the coexisting relationship of TB-HIV infections. At the same time, cattle herders and crop farmers who practice the prevalent occupation lack knowledge of TB-HIV relatedness. Across gender, only a proportion of males (14.8%) than females (10.5%) were more likely to show an understanding of the complementary association of HIV and TB, and this difference showed statistical significance (p = 0.0001). In conclusion, male gender, education at a degree or professional level, and employment with the government are factors associated with positive perceptions of TB/HIV relatedness. Thus, there is a need to intensify communication to educate Nomads on HIV and TB-related issues., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Care cascades represent the proportion of people reaching milestones in care for a disease and are widely used to track progress towards global targets for HIV and other diseases. Despite recent progress in estimating care cascades for tuberculosis (TB) disease, they have not been routinely applied at national and subnational levels, representing a lost opportunity for public health impact. As researchers who have estimated TB care cascades in high-incidence countries (India, Madagascar, Nigeria, Peru, South Africa, and Zambia), we describe the utility of care cascades and identify measurement challenges, including the lack of population-based disease burden data and electronic data capture, the under-reporting of people with TB navigating fragmented and privatised health systems, the heterogeneity of TB tests, and the lack of post-treatment follow-up. We outline an agenda for rectifying these gaps and argue that improving care cascade measurement is crucial to enhancing people-centred care and achieving the End TB goals., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests MP serves on the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Foundation of Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), a non-profit global alliance for diagnostics. MP is also an adviser to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He has no financial or industry conflicts. CU-G has received research support from the International Development Research Centre (Canada) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the National Institutes of Health, FIND, and Abbott for projects unrelated to this work. CU-G has also received honoraria from Molbio for presentations unrelated to this work. All other authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: This study aimed to assess the practices of private practitioners regarding tuberculosis (TB), and to ascertain factors related to the low contribution of private healthcare providers to TB prevention and care in Nigeria., Design: This is a mixed methods study comprising a quantitative retrospective review and qualitative study., Setting: Private health facilities (HF) in Oyo State and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Nigeria., Participants: We used routinely collected data on patients with tuberculosis (TB) notified between 1 January 2017 and 31 December 2018. In-depth interviews were also conducted with the clinical staff of the facilities., Primary and Secondary Outcome Measures: The study outcomes are practices of TB case notification and treatment outcome, as well as the barriers and enablers of TB notification., Results: A total of 13 (11.0%) out of 118 private HF were designated as 'engaged' TB care facilities in Oyo State and none (0%) of the 198 private HF in the FCT held this designation. From the 214 patients with presumptive TB, 75 (35%) were diagnosed with TB, 42 (56%) had a bacteriological test done, 12 (16%) had an X-ray of the chest alone and 21 (28%) had other non-specific investigations. Most patients diagnosed were referred to a public HF, while 19 (25%) patients were managed at the private HF. Among them, 2 (10.5%) patients were treated with unconventional regimens, 4 (21%) were cured, 2 (11%) died, 3 (16%) lost to follow-up and 10 (53%) were not evaluated. The general practitioners did not have up-to-date knowledge of TB with a majority not trained on TB. Most referred patients with presumptive and confirmed TB to the public sector without feedback and were unclear regarding diagnostic algorithm and relevant tests to confirm TB., Conclusion: Most private facilities were not engaged to provide TB services although with knowledge and practice gaps. The study has been used to develop plans for strategic engagement of the private sector in Nigeria., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background : Restrictions on public gatherings and movement to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 may have disrupted access and availability of HIV services in Malawi. We quantified the impact of these restrictions on HIV testing services in Malawi. Methods : We conducted an interrupted time series analysis of routine aggregated programme data from 808 public and private, adult and paediatric health facilities across rural and urban communities in Malawi between January 2018 and March 2020 (pre-restrictions) and April to December 2020 (post restrictions), with April 2020 as the month restrictions took effect. Positivity rates were expressed as the proportion of new diagnoses per 100 persons tested. Data were summarised using counts and median monthly tests stratified by sex, age, type of health facility and service delivery points at health facilities. The immediate effect of restriction and post-lockdown outcomes trends were quantified using negative binomial segmented regression models adjusted for seasonality and autocorrelation. Results : The median monthly number of HIV tests and diagnosed people living with HIV (PLHIV) declined from 261 979 (interquartile range [IQR] 235 654-283 293) and 7 929 (IQR 6 590-9 316) before the restrictions, to 167 307 (IQR 161 122-185 094) and 4 658 (IQR 4 535-5 393) respectively, post restriction. Immediately after restriction, HIV tests declined by 31.9% (incidence rate ratio [IRR] 0.681; 95% CI 0.619-0.750), the number of PLHIV diagnosed declined by 22.8% (IRR 0.772; 95% CI 0.695-0.857), while positivity increased by 13.4% (IRR 1.134; 95% CI 1.031-1.247). As restrictions eased, total HIV testing outputs and the number of new diagnoses increased by an average of 2.3% each month (slope change: 1.023; 95% CI 1.010-1.037) and 2.5% (slope change:1.025; 95% CI 1.012-1.038) respectively. Positivity remained similar (slope change: 1.001; 95% CI 0.987-1.015). Unlike general trends noted, while HIV testing services among children aged <12 months declined 38.8% (IRR 0.351; 95% CI 0.351-1.006) with restrictions, recovery has been minimal (slope change: 1.008; 95% CI 0.946-1.073). Conclusion : COVID-19 restrictions were associated with significant but short-term declines in HIV testing services in Malawi, with differential recovery in these services among population subgroups, especially infants. While efforts to restore HIV testing services are commendable, more nuanced strategies that promote equitable recovery of HIV testing services can ensure no subpopulations are left behind.

Background: Despite the availability of free drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) care in Nigeria since 2011, the country continues to tackle low case notification and treatment rates. In 2018, 11% of an estimated 21,000 cases were diagnosed and 9% placed on treatment. These low rates are nevertheless a marked improvement from 2015 when only 3.4% were diagnosed and 2.3% placed on treatment of an estimated 29,000 cases. This study describes the Nigerian DR-TB care cascade from 2013 to 2017 and considers factors influencing gaps in care., Methods: Our study utilized a mixed-method design. For the quantitative component, we utilized the national diagnosis and treatment databases, as well as the World Health Organization's estimates for prevalence to construct a 5-year care cascade: numbers of patients at each level of DR-TB care, including incident cases, individuals who accessed testing, were diagnosed, initiated treated and completed treatment in Nigeria between 2013 and 2017. Using retrospective data for patients diagnosed in 2015, we performed the Fisher's exact test to determine the association between patient (age and gender) and provider/patient (region- north or south) variables, permitting a closer look at the gaps in care revealed across the 5 years. Barriers to care were explored using framework thematic analysis of 57 qualitative interviews and focus group discussions with patients, including 5 cases not initiated on treatment from the 2015 cohort, treatment supporters, community members, healthcare workers and program managers in 2017., Results: A 5-year analysis of cascade of care data shows significant, but inadequate, increases in overall numbers of cases accessing care. On average, between 2013 and 2017, 80% of estimated cases did not access testing; 75% of those who tested were not diagnosed; 36% of those diagnosed were not initiated on treatment and 23% of these did not finish treatment. In 2015, children and patients in Northern Nigeria had odds of 0.3 [95% CI 0.1-0.7] and 0.4 [0.3-0.5] of completing treatment once diagnosed; while males were shown to have a 1.34 [95% CI 1.0-1.7] times greater chance of completing treatment after diagnosis. The main themes from qualitative data identified barriers to care along the care cascade at individual, family and community, as well as health systems levels. At the individual level, a lack of awareness of the true cause of disease and the availability of 'free' care was a recurring theme. Family interference was found to be a particular challenge for children and women. At the health system level, low index of suspicion, lack of rapid diagnostic tools and human resource shortages appeared to limit patients' access., Conclusions: Any gains in diagnostic technology and shorter regimens are lost with inadequate access to DR-TB services. The biggest losses in the Nigerian cascade happen before treatment initiation. There is a need for urgent action on identified gaps in the DR-TB cascade in order to improve care continuity at multiple stages, improve health service delivery and facilitate TB control in Nigeria., (© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: There were an estimated 580,000 new cases of multidrug/rifampicin resistant TB (DR-TB) in 2015, and only 20% were initiated on treatment. This study explored health system and patient factors associated with initiation and timeliness of treatment among DR-TB patients in Nigeria, ranked 4th globally for estimated TB cases in 2015., Methods: A retrospective cohort study using 2015 diagnosis and treatment data from the Nigerian TB program electronic records examined "treatment ever received" (yes/no) and "treatment within 30 days" (yes/no). We compared health system and patient characteristics using binomial logistic regression, while controlling for confounders., Results: Of 996 patients diagnosed nationwide in 2015 (aged 0-87 years, median 34), 47.8% were never treated. Of those treated (n = 520), 51.2% were treated within the 30 days prescribed in the National treatment guideline. Healthcare facility locations were significantly associated with ever receiving treatment and timely treatment. Predictors of timely treatment at the national level also included level of care and patient treatment history. The South-West zone, where DR-TB programs started, showed overall better access to DR-TB healthcare., Conclusions: Healthcare facility geographic locations were significantly associated with treatment initiation and timeliness. Significant regional differences in access to DR-TB care in Nigeria persist, reflecting uneven contexts for national DR-TB treatment rollout., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Setting: Nigeria, a high tuberculosis (TB) burden country. Objective: To study the rate, distribution and causes of unsuccessful Xpert ® MTB/RIF test outcomes, with the aim of identifying key areas that need to be strengthened for optimal performance of the assay. Design: This was a retrospective analysis of data uploaded between January and December 2015 from Xpert facilities to the central server using GXAlert. Result: Of 52 219 test results uploaded from 176 Xpert machines, 22.5% were positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 10.8% of which were rifampicin-resistant; 4.7% of the total number of results were invalid, 4.2% had error results and 2.1% no result outcomes. Technical errors were most frequent (69%); these were non-seasonal and occurred in all geopolitical regions and at all health facility levels. Temperature-related errors were more prevalent in the North-West Region, with peaks in April to June. Peak periods for temperature and machine malfunction errors coincided with the periods of low utilisation of the assay. Conclusion: The key challenge affecting performance was poor adherence to standard operating procedures. Periodic refresher training courses, regular supervision, preventive maintenance of Xpert machines and proper storage of cartridges are strategies that could improve Xpert performance., Competing Interests: The authors thank the Nigerian National Tuberculosis Programme and all partners investing in Xpert implementation for their support, including the US Agency for International Development (Washington DC, USA) and AB Associate (Paris, France) for GXAlert. Conflicts of interest: none declared.

Background: Despite achieving the WHO elimination target of less than 1/10,000 population in 1998 at the national level, there are still pockets of relative high endemicity of leprosy in Nigeria. This study used spatial analytic techniques to determine the spatial distribution of leprosy in Nigeria., Methods: The study is an ecological study of secondary data of new leprosy cases reported to the National TB and Leprosy Control Programme (NTBLCP) in Nigeria, 2010–2014. The 36 states and Federal Capital Territory were used as the unit of geographical analysis. The global Moran’s I and Local Moran’s I (LISA) test were used to measure spatial autocorrelation and significant levels were taken at P < , 0·05., Results: A total of 17,356 new leprosy cases were notified over 5 years (2010–2014) in Nigeria. A majority of the cases were multi-bacillary 16,037 (92·4%) while 1319 (7·6%) were pauci-bacillary. A total of 1569 (9%) children were reported with leprosy. The leprosy case detection rate increased slightly from 2·21/100,000 in 2010 to 2·24/100,000 in 2012 and declined to 1·66/100,000 population in 2014. Significant clustering of average annual leprosy case detection rate was observed in Kebbi state only, while childhood leprosy was significantly clustered in four states namely Sokoto, Kebbi, Rivers and Zamfara states., Conclusion: The study observed a significant clustering of leprosy case detection rate in Nigeria. The findings can serve as a useful guide to the national leprosy control programme for efficient use of scarce resources to target interventions to priority states for the elimination of leprosy in the country.

The partitioning of chloroquine and its two desethyl metabolites between red blood cells (RBCs) and plasma was studied in vitro, using blood from healthy adults and from children with Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia. Blood from the volunteers was incubated with varying concentrations of chloroquine (CQ), desethylchloroquine (DCQ) and bisdesethyl-chloroquine (BDCQ) for 15 min and the RBC/plasma concentration ratio determined. Desethylchloroquine and BDCQ were concentrated in the red cells of uninfected blood to the same extent as chloroquine. On the other hand, DCQ and BDCQ were concentrated to a significantly lower extent than CQ in the red cells from malarial children. The reduced ability of infected RBCs to concentrate DCQ and BDCQ may have an important bearing on the development of resistance to chloroquine by P. falciparum.

A specific method for the gas chromatographic determination of chloroquine (CQ) after derivatization with chloroformates, using 9-bromophenanthrene as the internal standard and a column filled with 3% OV-17 on 80-100 mesh Supelcoport is described. Derivatization with chloroformates produced a pyrrolidine derivative, 4-(2-methyl-1-pyrrolidyl)-7-chloroquinoline with CQ, and a carbamate with desethylchloroquine. The chloroformate reaction for CQ is thus selective in the presence of CQ metabolites. The method based on flame ionization detection is highly suitable for quantitation of CQ in urine.