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A recent meta-analysis has shown inconclusive results on the effectiveness of traditional electroencephalography (EEG) neurofeedback training (NFT) protocols in changing EEG activity and improving sports performance. To enhance the effectiveness of EEG NFT protocols, we explored a new approach to EEG NFT, namely the functionspecific instruction (FSI) approach. The basic tenet underpinning effective verbal instruction is to induce mental states as the verbal instructions consider the meaning of the brainwave function in the target region and the EEG power magnitude. This study aimed to test whether a single session of FSI is efficacious in improving frontal midline theta (FMT) activity and putting performance. Method: Thirty-six skilled golfers with a handicap of 14.05 +/- 9.43 were recruited. A consecutive sampling method was used to form three groups: an FSI group (n = 12), a traditional instruction (TI) group (n = 12), and a sham control (SC) group (n = 12). In the pre- and posttests, each participant performed 40 putts from a distance of 3 m, and the number of holed putts was recorded. The participants were asked to perform 50 trials in a single session of NFT. Putting performance improved significantly from before to after NFT in the FSI group. Moreover, the FSI group demonstrated a significant decrease in FMT power, whereas the SC group demonstrated a significant increase in FMT power from before to after NFT. These findings suggest that the FSI approach is more effective in enhancing sustained attention and putting performance in skilled golfers than TI.

Different functional connectivities in the brain, specifically in the frontoparietal and motor cortex–sensorimotor circuits, have been associated with superior performance in athletes. However, previous electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have only focused on the frontoparietal circuit and have not provided a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive–motor processes underlying superior performance. We used EEG coherence analysis to examine the motor cortex–sensorimotor circuit in golfers of different skill levels. Twenty experts, 18 amateurs, and 21 novices performed 60 putts at individual putting distances (40–60% success rate). The imaginary inter-site phase coherence (imISPC) was used to compute 8–13 Hz coherence that can be used to distinguish expert-novice and expert-amateur differences during motor preparation. We assessed the 8–13 Hz imISPC between the Cz and F3, F4, C3, C4, T3, T4, P3, P4, O1, and O2 regions. (1) Amateurs had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central regions (Cz–C3 and C4) than novices and experts, but experts had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC than novices. (2) Skilled golfers (experts and amateurs) had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central–parietal regions (Cz–P3 and P4) than novices. (3) Experts had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central–left temporal regions (Cz–T7) than amateurs and novices. Our study revealed that refinement of the motor cortex–sensorimotor circuit follows a U-shaped coherence pattern based on the stage of learning. The early learning stage (i.e., novice to amateur) is characterized by lower connectivity between the regions associated with motor control and visuospatial processes, whereas the late learning stage (i.e., amateur to expert) is characterized by lower connectivity in the regions associated with verbal-analytic and motor control processes.

This study characterized the adaptive attentional allocation that occurs during motor preparation. The specifications of task-relevant and task-irrelevant neural processes are key processes that facilitate successful performances by skilled athletes under difficult task conditions. Previous sport psychophysiology studies have used event-related desynchronization/synchronization analysis and electroencephalography (EEG) power analysis to distinguish the types of neuroelectric activity that occur during effortful but functional performance and effortful but dysfunctional performance. However, the dynamics of cortico-cortical communication in both performance states remain unclear. This study linked the simple model of attention allocation and the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis with EEG coherence analysis to specify the dynamics of cortico-cortical communication during successful performance. A within-subjects design was used. Intersite phase coherence (ISPC) and imaginary ISPC were used to compute 8-13 Hz EEG connectivity from EEG recordings obtained before successful and unsuccessful performances (i.e., 40 skilled golfers; 40%-60% putting success rate as individual task difficulty). Successful performance was characterized by (a) lower 8-13 Hz ISPC and imaginary ISPC (imISPC) at T7-Fz in the -2,000 to -1,000 ms time window and (b) lower 8-13 Hz imISPC at T7-Cz in the -1,000 to 0 ms time window. This study suggests that successful performance is characterized by reduced communication between verbal-analytical and motor planning processes, followed by decreased communication between verbal-analytical and motor control processes before putting initiation. Our findings not only characterize the dynamic neuromotor processes between successful performance and unsuccessful performance of a difficult task, but also provide practical guidelines for interventions such as neurofeedback training.

EEG neurofeedback training (EEG NFT) is a technique to help the athletes modulate their brain waves by providing the real-time feedback signals captured by the athletes themselves. The aim of using EEG NFT is to facilitate the athletes to achieve the adaptive psychological states and, thus, leading to superior sports performance (Gruzelier, 2014). The beneficial effect of EEG NFT can be discussed by the theoretical framework of psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. Psychomotor efficiency refers to the processing efficiency in the cortical activity in sports performance (Hatfield & Hillman, 2001). Superior performers achieve the high psychomotor efficiency by attenuating the irrelevant cortical processing. Encouraging reports from previous studies pointed out a close relationship between the cortical activity in the sensorimotor area and psychomotor efficiency (Cheng et al., 2015). In this presentation, one of the promising EEG markers will be discussed, which is the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR), 12–15 Hz of the EEG frequency band in the sensorimotor area. Higher SMR activity has shown a tight connection to improved cognitive performance and superior sports performance. Specifically, the reduced interference at the sensorimotor area, as reflected by higher SMR power, leading to the superior psychomotor efficiency during the preparation period in sports performance. Further studies focusing on building up the EEG NFT protocol based on SMR power is recommended in ameliorating the understanding of psychomotor efficiency hypothesis for sports performance.

Objectives This study proposed that Mu (8–13 Hz) and SMR (12–15 Hz) readings in the sensorimotor cortical area can be used to investigate the cognitive mechanisms underlying optimal motor performance. Design This study used a within-subject design. Method Forty expert golfers were recruited to perform 60 putts while their EEGs were recorded. The putting distance was chosen to ensure that approximately 50% of all putts would be missed so that there was a need for constant adjustments to be made during performance. Successful performance was defined as the ball going in the hole. Results (a) Lower Mu power in Cz, and alpha power in Pz and Oz were observed for successful performances compared with unsuccessful performances at T1 (−2000 ∼ −1000 ms); (b) Higher SMR power in Cz was observed for successful performances relative to unsuccessful performances at T2 (−1000 ∼ 0 ms). Conclusions These findings not only support the multi-action plan model (MAP) and the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis, but also reveal the temporal dynamics of the cognitive mechanisms in an optimal-controlled state.

The present study extends the sport neuroscience literature by comparing elite and amateur golfers during golf putting and examining the essential cognitive-motor processes that may contribute to understanding the superior cognitive-motor performance of skilled performers. Twenty elite and 18 amateur golfers were recruited to perform 60 putts while individual EEGs were recorded. Compared with the amateur golfers, the elite golfers were characterized by (1) lower alpha 2 power at Pz and T8 2 s before putt release; (2) lower alpha 2 power at Fz and T8 and lower mu 2 power 1 s before putting; and (3) lower alpha 2 coherence at Fz–T7 and Fz–T8. This suggests that the elite golfers had higher levels of attention to response motor programming and visuospatial attention and less cognitive-motor interference before putting. These findings not only point to the importance of refining brain processes but also specify essential cognitive-motor processes for superior performance in athletes.

Background The efficacy of emotional and motivational regulation can determine athletic performance. Giving the short duration and fast changing nature of emotions experienced by athletes in competition, it is important to examine the temporal dynamics of emotional and motivational regulation. The aim of this study was to investigate emotional and motivational regulation as measured by frontal alpha asymmetry in skilled golfers during putting performance after a performance failure. Methods Twenty skilled university golfers were recruited and requested to perform 40 putts at an individualized difficulty level of 40–60% successful putting rate. Trials immediately after a failed putt were selected for analysis. Successful performances were those trials where a hole was and unsuccessful performances were those that failed. The frontal alpha asymmetry index of LnF4-LnF3 was derived for statistical analysis. Results (1) Successful performance was preceded by a larger frontal alpha asymmetry index at T2 than that of T1, and (2) a larger frontal alpha asymmetry index was observed for unsuccessful performance than for successful performance at T1. Discussion The results suggest that successful emotional and motivational regulation was characterized by a progressive increase of frontal alpha asymmetry, which led to subsequent putting success when facing an emotionally provocative putting failure. These findings shed light on the application of frontal alpha asymmetry for the understanding and enhancement of emotional and motivational regulation during sport performance.

Objectives Psychomotor efficiency has been linked with processing efficiency during sport performance. Reduced cortical activity in the sensorimotor area has been related to less variability in the movement preparation that is conducive to skilled motor performance. This study proposes sensorimotor rhythm (SMR), 12–15 Hz of the electroencephalography (EEG) in the sensorimotor area, may be used to investigate psychomotor efficiency in sports performance. Method Twenty-four skilled air pistol shooters were recruited to fire 40 shots while EEG and shooting accuracy were recorded. Results The data show that improved performance of skilled shooters is associated with higher SMR power during the last second and lower coherence on high alpha power at Fz-T3 before action initiation. A negative relationship is also exhibited between the SMR power and the shooting performance during the aiming. Conclusions This finding suggests that reduced interference from sensorimotor processing, as reflected by elevated SMR power, may be related to improved processing efficiency during the aiming period. We conclude that SMR may be used to understand psychomotor efficiency underlying air-pistol shooting performance.