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This study aimed to investigate the efficiency of chemically characterised Carum carvi essential oil (CcEO) against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) producing strain of Aspergillus flavus (AF-LHP-WS-4) causing deterioration of herbal raw materials (HRM). GC-MS analysis of the EO revealed the presence of carvone (69.85%) as a dominant component. CcEO caused complete suppression of A. flavus growth and AFB1 secretion at 0.7 and 0.6 µL/mL, respectively. The investigation on antifungal mode of action showed that CcEO inhibited fungal growth via abrogating ergosterol biosynthesis and triggered efflux of vital cellular ions. The inhibition of AFB1 biosynthesis was attributed to the inhibition of cellular methylglyoxal (MG) biosynthesis. In addition, CcEO showed remarkable antioxidant activity (IC50 = 10.564 µL/mL) against DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radicals. Based on overall results, it can be concluded that the CcEO may be recommended as potential antifungal agent for protection of HRM from fungal infestation and AFB1 contamination.

The study deals with first time report on encapsulation of chemically characterized Anethum graveolens essential oil within chitosan nanomatrix (Nm-AGEO) using ionic gelation technique to enhance the antimicrobial, antiaflatoxigenic, antioxidant, and in situ efficacy against stored rice biodeterioration. GC-MS analysis of AGEO revealed dill apiol (33.79%), carvone (27.19%), and limonene (13.76%) as major components. Nm-AGEO characterization through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed successful encapsulation of AGEO within chitosan as an encapsulant. Biphasic and sustained release pattern reflected controlled volatilization of bioactives, helpful in shelf-life extension of stored food commodities. Nm-AGEO caused significant impairment in fungal ergosterol biosynthesis and enhanced leakage of vital ions indicating destabilization in plasma membrane integrity. Inhibition of methylglyoxal (aflatoxin inducer) biosynthesis by Nm-AGEO confirmed novel antiaflatoxigenic mechanism of action, suggesting its future exploitation for development of aflatoxin-resistant rice varieties through green transgenics. Nm-AGEO induced impairment in antioxidant defense enzymes (SOD, CAT) and non-enzymatic defense biomolecules GSH and GSSG revealing biochemical mechanism of action. In silico modeling of carvone and limonene with Omt-A and Ver-1 genes suggested molecular mechanism of aflatoxin inhibition. Treatment of rice samples with Nm-AGEO caused significant protection from aflatoxin B1 contamination and lipid peroxidation without altering organoleptic properties. Moreover, favorable safety profile for mammalian system and non-phytotoxic nature of chitosan-fabricated AGEO nanoemulsion-based delivery system recommend attention of food industries for its formulation as potential green preservative.

In this study, a comparative efficacy of Cananga odorata EO (CoEO) and its nanoencapsulated formulation into chitosan nanoemulsion (CoEO-CsNe) against a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus (AF-M-K5) were investigated for the first time in order to determine its efficacy in preservation of stored food from fungal, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination and lipid peroxidation. GC and GC–MS analysis of CoEO revealed the presence of linalool (24.56%) and benzyl acetate (22.43%) as the major components. CoEO was encapsulated into chitosan nanoemulsion (CsNe) through ionic-gelation technique and characterized by High Resolution-Scanning Electron Microscopy (HR-SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The CoEO-CsNe during in vitro investigation against A. flavus completely inhibited the growth and AFB1 production at 1.0 μL/mL and 0.75 μL/mL, respectively. Additionally, CoEO-CsNe showed improved antioxidant activity against DPPH• and ABTS•+ with IC50 value 0.93 and 0.72 μL/mL, respectively. Further, CoEO-CsNe suppressed fungal growth, AFB1 secretion and lipid peroxidation in Arachis hypogea L. during in situ investigation without causing any adverse effect on seed germination. Overall results demonstrated that the CoEO-CsNe has potential of being utilized as a suitable plant based antifungal agent to improve the shelf-life of stored food against AFB1 and lipid peroxidation mediated biodeterioration.

In this article, the snake robot having nine links with eight joints is considered for serpentine motion in the underwater environment. The movement of a snake robot occurs due to nonlinear drag forces and fluidic torque in underwater conditions. The uncertainties in drag forces and fluidic torque are considered to track the head angle and tangential velocity in this work. The virtual holonomic constraints are formulated to track all the joints by designing a controller for single joint. The parameters of gait pattern are obtained using the sliding surface. The sliding surface is formulated for head link angle and velocity tracking. Super twisting sliding mode control approach is proposed to deal with uncertainties, and results are compared with sliding mode control and adaptive sliding mode control. The robustness of controller is verified by inputting measurement noise. The significant improvement has been observed in chattering indicator and control effort by using the proposed super twisting sliding mode control. The investigation of this research article focuses on how to get almost chattering free operation in underwater uncertain environmental conditions with minimum control effort.

The present study deals with the antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic potential of Cinnamomum cassia essential oil (CCEO) against aflatoxigenic food borne Aspergillus flavus strain (AF-LHP-PE-4), and p...

The study reports the preservative efficacy of Bunium persicum (Boiss) essential oil (BPEO) against fungal and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of stored masticatories and boosting of its efficacy through encapsulation into chitosan. BPEO was chemically characterized through GC-MS analysis, which revealed γ-terpinene as the major compound. The BPEO at 1.2 μL/mL concentration completely inhibited the growth of toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus (AF-LHP-PE-4) along with 15 common food borne moulds and AFB1 secretion. The BPEO exerts its antifungal action on plasma membrane, as confirmed through ergosterol inhibition, alteration of membrane fluidity and enhancement of cellular ions and 260 and 280 nm absorbing material leakage. The antiaflatoxigenic mechanism of action of BPEO was confirmed through methylglyoxal reduction. Further, BPEO showed strong antioxidant activity (IC50 = 7.36 μL/mL) as measured by DPPH· assay. During in situ investigation, BPEO completely inhibited AFB1 production in model food (Phyllanthus emblica) system without altering the sensory properties and also exhibited high LD50 value (14,584.54 μL/kg) on mice. In addition, BPEO was encapsulated into chitosan, characterized and tested for their potential to inhibit growth and AFB1 production. The mean particle size, PDI and zeta potential of formed BPEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticle (CS-Np-BPEO) were performed to confirm successful encapsulation. The result revealed nanoencapsulated BPEO showed enhanced activity and completely inhibited the growth and AFB1 production by AF-LHP-PE-4 at 0.8 μL/mL. Based on findings, it could be concluded that the BPEO and its encapsulated formulation can be recommended as a potential plant-based preservative against fungal and aflatoxin contamination of stored masticatories.

The present study reports the formulation of Apium graveolens essential oil (AGEO) with its major components linalyl acetate (LA) and geranyl acetate (GA) (1:1:1) as a novel green preservative for protection of postharvest food commodities from fungal infestations, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) secretion, free radical generation and lipid peroxidation. The essential oil based novel formulation displayed considerable inhibitory action against fourteen food borne molds responsible for deterioration of stored food commodities, in addition to the most toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus (AFLHPR14) isolated from fungal and aflatoxin contaminated rice seeds. The observed higher efficacy of designed formulation was due to the synergistic action of essential oil and its major components. Fungal plasma membrane was recorded as the possible target site of antifungal action of the formulation as revealed through reduction in membrane ergosterol content, increased intracellular propidium iodide (PI) fluorescence and enhanced leakage of cellular ions (sodium, potassium, calcium) and 260, 280 nm absorbing materials. Further, inhibition of methylglyoxal (an aflatoxin inducer) confirmed the aflatoxin inhibitory potential of novel formulation based on essential oil and its major components. High antioxidant potential as observed through DPPH and ABTS·+ radical scavenging assay, improved phenolic content, considerable inhibition of lipid peroxidation in stored rice seeds, in situ efficacy on AFB1 inhibition in food system under storage container system, acceptable sensorial characteristics and favorable safety profile during animal trials suggest the recommendation of the designed formulation for large scale application as green preservative by food and agriculture based industries against fungal and aflatoxin contamination of stored commodities.

The present study aimed to co-encapsulate binary synergistic formulation of Pimpinella anisum and Coriandrum sativum (PC) essential oils (0.75:0.25) into chitosan nanoemulsion (Nm-PC) with effective inhibition against fungal proliferation, aflatoxin B

This study aimed to investigate the efficiency of chemically characterised

The present investigation aimed to synthesize Cymbopogon nardus essential oil impregnated chitosan nanoemulsion (Ne-CNEO) and its practical efficacy as novel green delivery system for protection of Syzygium cumini seeds against broad range storage fungi, aflatoxin B

Microbes are the biggest shareholder for the quantitative and qualitative deterioration of food commodities at different stages of production, transportation, and storage, along with the secretion of toxic secondary metabolites. Indiscriminate application of synthetic preservatives may develop resistance in microbial strains and associated complications in human health with broad-spectrum environmental non-sustainability. The application of essential oils (EOs) as a natural antimicrobial and their efficacy for the preservation of foods has been of present interest and growing consumer demand in the current generation. However, the loss in bioactivity of EOs from fluctuating environmental conditions is a major limitation during their practical application, which could be overcome by encapsulating them in a suitable biodegradable and biocompatible polymer matrix with enhancement to their efficacy and stability. Among different nanoencapsulated systems, nanoemulsions effectively contribute to the practical applications of EOs by expanding their dispersibility and foster their controlled delivery in food systems. In line with the above background, this review aims to present the practical application of nanoemulsions (a) by addressing their direct and indirect (EO nanoemulsion coating leading to active packaging) consistent support in a real food system, (b) biochemical actions related to antimicrobial mechanisms, (c) effectiveness of nanoemulsion as bio-nanosensor with large scale practical applicability, (d) critical evaluation of toxicity, safety, and regulatory issues, and (e) market demand of nanoemulsion in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals along with the current challenges and future opportunities.

Food industries are facing ry faces a great challenge due to contamination of food products with different microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites etc. These microbes deteriorate food items both by producing different toxins during pre and post-harvest processing. They not only deteriorate food but also contaminate them with different toxins. Mycotoxins are one of theamong most potent and well-studied toxic food contaminant of fungal origin causing severe health hazard to human health hazard. UseApplication of synthetic chemicals as food preservatives in food system pose a real scourge in the present scenario is being discouraged due to their bio-incompatibility, and non-biodegradability and environmental non-sustainability. Therefore, plant based antimicrobials including essential oils have developed cumulative interest come up as potential replacement alternative of these popular synthetic preservatives because of their ecofriendly nature and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status. However, the practical Worldwide utilization of essential oils as plant based and efficient antimicrobial in the food industry is challenging due to their volatile nature, less solubility and high instability. The recent application of different delivery strategies viz. nanoencapsulation, active packaging and polymer based coating are effectively addressed these challenges and improve the bioefficacy as well as controlled release of essential oils. This challenge can be overcome by nanoencapsulation. Nanoencapsulation is an interesting and emerging technique that raises the physico-chemical properties, as well as slow release of essential oils for improving food safety. This article provides an detailed overview on essential oils for preservation of stored foods against bacteria, fungi and mycotoxins of antimicrobial plant based food preservatives, their along with specialized mechanismmode of action and technological advancement by using different delivery systems for their effective application in food and agricultural industries smart green preservative.in their application for food preservation.

The aim of the present study was to encapsulate linalool into chitosan nanocomposite (Nm-linalool) for developing novel controlled release delivery system in order to protect stored rice against fungal infestation, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination, and lipid peroxidation. The chitosan-linalool nanocomposite showed spherical shapes, smooth surface with monomodal distribution as revealed by SEM and AFM investigation. FTIR and XRD represented peak shifting and changes in degree of crystallinity after incorporation of linalool into chitosan nanocomposite. Nanoencapsulation of linalool showed higher zeta potential and lowered polydispersity index. TGA analysis reflected the stability of Nm-linalool with reduced weight loss at varying temperatures. Biphasic pattern, with initial rapid release followed by sustained release illustrated controlled delivery of linalool from chitosan nanocomposite, a prerequisite for shelf-life enhancement of stored food products. Chitosan nanocomposite incorporating linalool displayed prominent antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity during in vitro as well as in situ investigation in rice with improved antioxidant potentiality. Further, Nm-linalool displayed considerable reduction of lipid peroxidation in rice without exerting any adverse impact on organoleptic attributes. In conclusion, the investigation strengthens the application of chitosan-linalool nanocomposite as an innovative controlled nano-delivery system for its practical application as novel environmentally friendly eco-smart preservative in food and agricultural industries.

The study reports industrial significance of chemically characterized nanoencapuslated Ocimum sanctum essential oil (OSEO) against fungi contaminating herbal raw materials and aflatoxin B1 secretion. The chitosan encapsulated OSEO exhibited enhanced antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic potential as compared to unencapsulated OSEO. The nanoencapsulated OSEO reduced the ergosterol content and enhanced the leakage of vital cellular ions along with the loss of 260 and 280 nm absorbing material suggesting fungal plasma membrane as action site. The nanoencapsulated OSEO also reduced the methylglyoxal content, the aflatoxin inducing substrate. In addition, the OSEO nanoemulsion possessed promising antioxidant potential. The nanoemulsion was characterized through SEM, FTIR and XRD analysis. This is the first report on assessment of OSEO loaded novel chitosan nanoemulsion against aflatoxin B1 contamination. The study recommends application of the encapsulated OSEO to extend the shelf life of stored herbal raw materials and the findings also lead towards the development of aflatoxin and methylglyoxal resistant medicinal plants through green transgenics.

The study reports efficacy of Melissa officinalis L. essential oil (MOEO) as a safe plant-based insecticide against Tribolium castaneum Herbst (TC) by induction of oxidative stress. MOEO nanoencapsulation in chitosan matrix was performed to enhance its bioefficacy. GC–MS analysis of MOEO depicted geranial (31.54%), neral (31.08%), and β-caryophyllene (12.42%) as the major components. MOEO showed excellent insecticidal potential in contact (100% mortality at 0.157 μL/cm2) and fumigant bioassays (LC50 = 0.071 μL/mL air) and 100% repellency at concentration ≤ 0.028 μL/cm2. Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and decreased ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) at the LC50 dose suggested significant oxidative stress on TC in MOEO treatment sets. The encapsulated MOEO exhibited enhanced activity as fumigant (LC50 = 0.048 μL/mL air) and showed significant antifeedant activity in situ (EC50 = 0.043 μL/mL). High LD50 value (13,956.87 μL/kg body weight of mice) confirmed favorable toxicological profile for non-target mammals. The findings depict potential of nanoencapsulated MOEO as an eco-friendly green pesticide against infestation of stored food by TC.

Masticatories are prone to fungal and mycotoxin contamination during postharvest processing. The plant based preservatives may be recommended as safe alternatives of synthetic chemicals for their proper storage to protect them from fungal and mycotoxins contamination. This review presents an overview on mycoflora and mycotoxins associated with plant masticatories and prospectives of essential oils and their nanoencapsulated formulations as safe plant based preservatives.

The present investigation reports antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic efficacy of Salvia sclarea essential oil (SSEO) and its combination with Linalyl acetate (LA) (1:1) against herbal drug deteriorating molds and aflatoxin B1 contamination. GC-MS analysis of SSEO showed Linalyl Acetate (LA) (61.33%) and Linalool (LL) (17.59%) as major components. The SSEO and LA combination displayed better antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity as compared to SSEO and LA used individually. SSEO and LA combination was effective in reduction of ergosterol and enhanced leakage of vital ions and UV-absorbing materials in a dose dependent manner. The combination caused significant reduction in cellular methylglyoxal content, an aflatoxin inducer suggesting its future application for development of aflatoxin resistant herbal drug varieties through green transgenics. The combination also showed pronounced antioxidant activity as compared to SSEO and LA used separately. Interestingly, the combination showed significant in situ protection of Picrorhiza kurroa rhizomes against mould infestation.

The present investigation entails the fabrication and characterization of nanometric emulsion of eugenol (Nm-eugenol) encompassed into chitosan for assessing bio-efficacy in terms of in vitro antifungal actions, antiaflatoxigenic potential, and in situ preservative efficacy against Aspergillus flavus infestation and aflatoxin B

Application of synthetic preservatives to control the contamination of stored food commodities with aflatoxin B

Origanum majorana essential oil (OmEO) encapsulated into chitosan nanoemulsion is being reported as a novel preservative of stored food items against fungi, aflatoxin B

Plant diseases are important challenge to agriculture worldwide. Annually millions of tons of agricultural produce are lost due to the actions of plants pathogens. Past historical evidences are available showing the great mass migration and death of humans caused by the disease outbreak. Currently, several measures have been adopted to control the loss of crop productivity caused by fungal diseases. Physical and chemical approaches have gained huge success in managing the plant diseases, but being costly and toxic to natural environment in most of the cases, these are not preferred by the farmers. Moreover, the use of agrochemicals to control the plant pathogens has evoked the phenomenon of pest resistance and thus aggravating the seriousness of plant diseases and loss of crop productivity. To minimize the risks of synthetic chemicals, biological control measures have been introduced to control the fast multiplication of several plant diseases; however, under natural environmental conditions, their efficiency is very much affected. Plant systems have evolved several mechanisms to deal with the encountered pathogens. Enhancing the plant immunity against diseases caused by important plant pathogens by identifying and introducing the genes promoting the diseases resistance may serve as a good option in near future to control the plant disease for human welfare.

The study reports chemically characterised Myristica fragrans essential oil (MFEO) as plant based food preservative against fungal and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of scented rice varieties. The chemical profile of MFEO revealed elemicin (27.08%), myristicine (21.29%) and thujanol (18.55%) as major components. The minimum inhibitory and minimum aflatoxin inhibitory concentrations of MFEO were 2.75 and 1.5 mg/ml, respectively. The MFEO was efficacious against a broad spectrum of food deteriorating fungi. MFEO caused decrease in ergosterol content of fungal plasma membrane and enhanced leakage of cellular ions, depicting plasma membrane as the site of action. The MFEO caused reduction in cellular methylglyoxal content, the aflatoxin inducer. This is the first report on MFEO as aflatoxin suppressor. The essential oil may be recommended as plant based food preservative after large scale trials and reduction in methylglyoxal suggests its application for development of aflatoxin resistant varieties through green transgenics.

The chemical characterisation of Pimenta dioica essential oil (PDEO) revealed the presence of 50 components, amongst which α-Terpineol (30.31%) was the major component followed by β-Linalool (6.75%) and γ-Terpinene (4.64%). The oil completely inhibited the growth of aflatoxin B1 secreting strain Aspergillus flavus LHP-VS-8 and aflatoxin B1 production at 2.5 µL/mL and 1.5 µL/mL, respectively. The oil caused dose dependent reduction of methylglyoxal (an AFB1 inducer), enhanced leakage of Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+ ions and significantly reduced ergosterol content of fungal plasma membrane. During in situ experiments, PDEO exhibited complete protection of fumigated maize cob slices from fungal infestation without affecting seed germination. The chemically characterised PDEO is recommended as a plant based preservative and shelf life enhancer of food commodities by preventing fungal growth, AFB1 production and lipid peroxidation. This is the first report on PDEO as inhibitor of AFB1 secretion and methylglyoxal biosynthesis.

Herbal medicines (HMs) are receiving considerable attention as the complementary drugs throughout the world due to their cost effectiveness, low toxicity, and therapeutic potential against wide range of human illness. These plants possess a wide range of bioactive principles which alone or synergistically act on different targets. Even in the modern era of medicine and technology, more than 80% of the modern medicines currently available and one-third population of the developing countries largely depend on plant products either directly or indirectly for their primary health care. Several plants such as Aegle marmelos, Atropa belladonna, Azadirachta indica, Catharanthus roseus, Camptotheca acuminata, Colchicum autumnale, Curcuma longa, Digitalis lanata, Eclipta alba, Ocimum sanctum, Papaver somniferum, Phyllanthus emblica, Rauvolfia serpentina, Taxus brevifolia, and several other high value plants have been well acknowledged for its pharmacological importance to treat important human diseases like diabetes, cancer, dementia, epilepsy, hepatitis, fever, kidney stone, malaria, mouth ulcer, and other important disorders in indigenous system of medicine. In spite of their great potential against different human diseases, the HMs have faced several acceptance issues for the practical application due to lack of scientific and clinical evidence regarding their biochemical mode of action on particular cells, tissues, or organs. Therefore, a mass-scale clinical trials and specific documentation on its molecular mode of action is needed. Based on the aforementioned background, the present chapter describes the documentation of important medicinal plants and their derived bioactive principles, potential to combat important human diseases with underlying mode of action to facilitate direction for reproducible drug discovery, which are safe, cost effective, and rational alternatives to the modern remedies.