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Objective: To determine the effect of two adhesive systems and a glass ionomer coating resin on fluoride release and concurrent pH changes over a period of 168 days. Material and methods: Four restorative materials were investigated: a giomer Beautiful II, an “alkasite” material Cention, a conventional composite Filtek Z250, and a glass ionomer cement Fuji IX Extra. Light-cured composite specimens were coated using G-aenial Bond and Clearfil Universal Bond Quick. Glass ionomer specimens were coated using GC Fuji Coat LC. Uncoated specimens were used as references. Quantitative fluoride release and pH changes were measured after 1 h, 24 h, 2 days, 7 days, 28 days, 84 days, and 168 days. Results: The cumulative fluoride release after 168 days increased for uncoated specimens in the following order: Filtek Z250 < Beautifil II < Cention < Fuji IX Extra. A comparatively lower fluoride release was measured for the composites coated with Clearfil Universal Bond Quick, with cumulative values after 168 days increasing in the following order: Filtek Z250 < Beautifil II < Cention. The composites coated with G-aenial Bond showed lower fluoride release compared to the uncoated specimens, with cumulative values increasing in the following order: Filtek Z250 < Beautifil II < Cention. The composites coated with G-aenial Bond showed pH values in the acidic range (4.4- 5.7) after 1 h and 24 h. Conclusion: Fluoride release varied among the investigated restorative materials and depended on the use of dental adhesives and coatings. The pH of all materials, coating types and time points varied.

Aim To assess the use of sedative pharmacological agents (SPA) among students in Croatia during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Methods An online questionnaire, specially developed for the research purposes, was completed by 1403 students. The questionnaire inquired about general characteristics, the effect of the pandemic and earthquakes on students’ lives, and SPA use (method of purchasing, modes, and frequency). Results In the total sample, the SPA use before the pandemic significantly correlated with that after the beginning of the pandemic (P < 0.001). After the beginning of the pandemic, medical students used significantly more SPA than other biomedical students (P = 0.017). When compared with non-biomedical students, biomedical students did not differ significantly in SPA use after the beginning of the pandemic (P = 0.365). Conclusion Medical students used more SPA than other biomedical students. Biomedical students did not differ in SPA use from non-biomedical students.

Objectives The aim of this study was to quantify the changes in glucose concentration in unstimulated saliva samples mixed with finely crushed salted sticks or oat meal using a readily available portable glucometer. Methods Glucose measurements were taken every 10 min during a 1 h monitoring period, for a total of 14 saliva samples mixed with test foods. Salivary amylase activity was measured immediately after saliva collection (T0) and after 1h (T60). Level of salivary amylase activity was correlated with an increase in glucose concentration. Results We observed significant differences in the rate of increase in glucose concentration between the two different test foods, with salted sticks leading to greater increase in glucose concentration. No significant association was found between salivary amylase activity and the rate of increase in glucose concentration. The mean level of amylase activity at T60 was higher than that at T0, but this difference was not significant. Conclusions This pilot study presents glucose release rate characteristics from specific food particles mixed with saliva in vitro suggesting that the same process takes place in the oral cavity. However, the characteristics of this process when occurring in the mouth would expectedly be modified by different factors such as rinsing effect of salivary flow, oral temperature, etc. Prolonged release of low molecular carbohydrates such as maltose and glucose from food particles can be considered cariogenic and therefore unfavorable for individuals with other risk factors contributing to the development of dental caries.

Background The objective of this study was to assess the attitude, practice, and knowledge of Croatian dentists regarding infective endocarditis (IE) prophylaxis. Material and methods A cross-sectional, self-reporting questionnaire survey was conducted with the participation of 348 Croatian dentists. The questionnaire was designed to collect information on participants' work experience, place of work, their attitudes related to the treatment of IE-risk patients, knowledge and adherence to IE antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines. Results Knowledge and adherence to the current guidelines decreased with the higher years of experience. Compliance with the current guidelines varied, mostly because of respondents' insecurity regarding which guidelines to follow. AHA guidelines have been most frequently the first choice (25% participants). Surprisingly, 23% of dentists didn't follow any of the official guidelines. The majority of participants (68%) have declared a lack of preparedness or willingness to treat the patients at risk of IE. Dentists with specialty or working at university/hospital have shown a higher level of knowledge and preparedness to treat IE-risk patients. Conclusions The lack of knowledge of guidelines and consequent inconsistencies in IE antibiotic prophylaxis in Croatian dental practice indicates the need for urgent improvement. Key words:Antibiotic prophylaxis, dentistry, infective endocarditis.

Objectives: Smoking has been extensively investigated as a risk factor for periodontal disease and many studies have confirmed it. The aim of this study was to show data from Croatia on periodontal health among high school students, with the focus on association of tobacco use and oral hygiene habits, and the periodontal parameters. Methods: Pocket probing depth (PPD), bleeding on probing, supragingival calculus, and oral hygiene habits were recorded for each examinee out of 517 high school students. PPD was measured at 4 interproximal sites on all first molars and central incisors (index teeth). Results: There were 34.6% smokers among subjects, who started smoking on average at the age of 14. More than half of the smokers (55.3%) smoked 1-10 cigarettes per day and intensity of smoking increased with age. PPD was significantly greater (p = 0.012) in smokers (1.69 mm) than in non- smokers (1.59 mm). In non-smoking subjects, increased values of PPD were in direct proportion to the reduced frequency of brushing, while there was no difference in smokers. The number of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking had a great influence on PPD. Smokers had on average more teeth with supragingival calculus than non- smokers, while non-smokers had more bleeding on probing, and the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Conclusions: This study indicated that cigarette smoking was associated with decreased periodontal health even in this young population. Irregular oral hygiene was associated with decreased periodontal health only in non-smokers. Therefore, it should be important to inform young smokers about the negative effects of cigarette smoking on periodontal health, to provide consultations and reinforce smoking prevention measures.

Objective: This in vitro study compares the fluoride release from microlaminated glass ionomer based on glass hybrid technology coated with two different surface coating agents. Materials and Methods: A total of 18 samples were divided into three groups of six samples each: (1) glass ionomer Equia Forte Fil coated with Equia Forte Coat (Equia+EC), (2) glass ionomer Equia Forte Fil coated with GC Fuji Varnish (Equia+VC) and (3) uncoated glass ionomer Equia Forte (EQUIA cont). Fluoride release was measured using an ion-selective electrode (ORION EA 940) after 24 hours, 4 days, 30 days and 64 days. Repeated measures ANOVA, multiple comparisons, Tukey’s test and paired t-test were used to test the differences between the groups. Results: The differences between the groups and four time points were statistically significant (ANOVA, p

Aim was to determine effect of pH, fluoride (F−) and hydrofluoric acid concentration (HF) on dynamic of nickel (Ni2+) and titanium (Ti4+) ions release. Nickel-titanium wires with untreated surface (NiTi), rhodium (RhNiTi) and nitride (NNiTi) coating were immersed once a week for five min in remineralizing agents, followed by immersion to artificial saliva. Ion release was recorded after 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Pearson correlations and linear regression were used for statistical analysis. Release of Ni2+ from NiTi and NNiTi wires correlated highly linearly positively with HF (r=0.948 and 0.940, respectively) ; for RhNiTi the correlation was lower and negative (r=−0.605 ; p

This study was performed to investigate the influence of the English language on the medical/dental terminology of Croatian dental students. It emerged from the terminological projects of the School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb that had been conducted as a part of the national programme the Development of Croatian Special Field Terminology. Students were asked to translate English sentences allegedly extracted from dental literature into Croatian. The results showed that most students translated the offered English terms using anglicisms rather than choosing Croatian terms. The finding that students distinctively prefer professional literature in Croatian suggests that their professional vocabulary is mostly modelled by the Croatian educational materials and by the discourse of instruction. These results suggest the need for further activities concerning the popularization of Croatian medical/dental terminology for the purpose of preservation and development of a native professional vocabulary and of improving communication with patients and patients’ understanding of medical information.

Background and Aims: Gum chewing after a meal stimulates salivation and may affect the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and the release of hormones through neural mechanisms. This study was conducted to assess if chewing a sugar-free gum for 20 min following a meal, as recommended for dental caries prevention, influences the postprandial blood glucose levels in a period of one hour. Materials and Methods: For each of 18 participants blood glucose profile was made by measuring capillary glucose concentration in 10-min intervals within one hour following: a) chewing a sugar-free gum, b) the consumption of an oatmeal, c) chewing a sugar-free gum after the consumption of an oatmeal. Results: No statistically significant differences were found in the glycaemic response following complex carbohydrate ingestion when a gum was chewed after a meal. Conclusions: The possible influence of gum chewing on the postprandial gastrointestinal and metabolic ongoings was not reflected in the postprandial glycaemic response under the conditions of this study. A more comprehensive study which would include more variables related to vagal efferent activity, digestion and metabolism would be needed to assess if chewing sugar-free gums to exploit their caries-protective potential can influence metabolic adaptability to nutritional challenges.

Introduction The primary objective of this study was to assess whether exposing dental students to visual stimuli related to dental profession during the medical physiology seminar could affect their perception of the clinical relevance of the topic. Subjects and methods A self-administered questionnaire on attitudes towards medical physiology was conducted amongst 105 students of the School of Dental Medicine in Zagreb, Croatia, aged 19-24 years (80% females) following a seminar on respiratory system physiology. Power-point presentation accompanying the seminar for a total of 52 students (study group) was enriched with pictures related to dental practice in order to assess whether these pictures could make the topic appear more clinically relevant for a future dentist. Results The results of the survey indicated that dental students in the study group perceived the topic of the seminar as more important for them as future dentists when compared to the perception of the control group (P = 0.025). Discussion and conclusion The results of this survey encourage physiology lecturers to present medical physiology as clinically relevant for dental students whenever possible as this could increase students' interest in the subject and their motivation for learning. Such an approach could be particularly beneficial if there is a significant time gap between basic courses and involvement of students into clinical training for it could promote meaningful learning.

a b s t r a c t Objective: We tested the hypothesis that the transition from the late antique to the early mediaeval period in Croatia had a negative impact on the periodontal health. Methods: 1118 skulls were examined for dental calculus, alveolar bone resorption, fenestrations, dehiscences and root furcation involvement. Results: The prevalence of teeth with calculus varied from 40.7% in the LA sample of continental parts of Croatia to 50.3% in the LA sample of Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of alveolar bone resorption ranged between 21.2% in the EM sample from continental Croatia and 32.3% in the LA sample from Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with alveolar bone dehiscences varied from 8.6% in the LA sample from continental Croatia up to 15.0% in the EM sample from Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with alveolar bone fenestrations varied from 21.5% in the LA sample from Adriatic Croatia up to 36.2% in the LA sample from continental Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with exposed root bifurcations or trifurcations varied from 9.0% in the EM sample from Adriatic Croatia up to 20.7% in the EM sample from continental Croatia. Statistically significant differences were found between samples. Conclusion: The transition from the late antique to the early mediaeval period in Croatia did not have a negative impact on periodontal health. Studies of periodontal health of ancient populations should be performed to provide a better and more reliable reconstruction of living conditions in the past.

a b s t r a c t Objective: Malocclusions are relative infrequently analysed in bioarchaeological investigations and if investigated the samples are very small. This research provides analysis of orthodontic anomalies of even 1118 individuals from the Late Antique (LA) and Early Mediaeval (EM) period. Aims were to describe the prevalence of orthodontic anomalies in this historical period and to analyse which orthodontic anomalies are best suitable for bioarchaeological investigations. Methods: 1118 skulls were examined for anomalies of tooth number, tooth displacement (rotation, malposition, diastema and crowding) as well as for malocclusions. Results: The prevalence of hypodontia in the LA was 41.02% and 30.61% in the EM sample. Tooth displacement was noticed in 15.63% individuals from the LA and in 12.42% individuals from EM. About 26% of the LA sample and 7.19% of the EM sample were affected with tooth crowding and the difference was statistically significant. Conclusion: Orthodontic anomalies affecting only one tooth or group of teeth are more suitable for examination in bioarchaeological investigations than orthodontic features requiring presence of both jaws and all or almost all teeth. Clinical investigation protocols and methodology should be adopted for bioarchaeological researches and international standards and recommendations should be established for this kind of investigation on skeletal remains.

Objective: To determine the physiologic changes of salivary flow rate, pH, and buffer capacity and the levels of Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus spp in patients undergoing fixed orthodontic treatment. Materials and Methods: The study included 23 patients scheduled for fixed orthodontic therapy. All subjects received equal braces, bands, and brackets, bonded with the same material. Stimulated saliva samples were taken before placement of the appliance, and at weeks 6, 12, and 18 during the therapy. Salivary flow rate and salivary pH were measured, and the salivary buffer capacity was determined. Saliva samples were cultivated on selective microbial agar for microorganism detection. Results: A significant (P < .05) increase in stimulated salivary flow rate and salivary pH was found. The salivary levels of S mutans and Lactobacillus spp also inscreased significantly (P < .05), and the major peak was at week 12 of fixed orthodontic therapy. Conclusion: The 6th to 12th week of orthodontic therapy is the period of the most intensive intraoral growth of S mutans and Lactobacillus spp and a time of very intensive salivary functions and physiologic response.

Svrha: Svrha ovoga preliminarnog istraživanja in vitro bila je procijeniti učinak sline pušača (pretpostavlja se da sadržava veću koncentraciju kalcija) u kombinaciji s fluornom pastom za zube na ugradnju alkalno topljivih fluorida na površinu cakline. Materijali i metode: Sa svakoga od 14 ekstrahiranih impaktiranih umnjaka odrezana su četiri caklinska bloka koji su nakon toga nasumičnim odabirom svrstani u četiri skupine. Uzorci nestimulirane sline prikupljeni su od dvojice dobrovoljca istoga spola i dobi – jedan je bio pušač, a drugi nepušač. Dva uzorka iz skupine A i B mućkala su se pet minuta u slini (A – u slini pušača, B – u slini nepušača), a zatim tri minute u smjesi paste za zube i deionizirane vode (1 : 3). Uzorci iz skupina C nisu bili tretirani slinom nego su se mućkali samo u smjesi paste za zube i deionizirane vode. Tretman je ponovljen poslije šest sati. Jedna od skupina (D) poslužila je kao kontrolna. Rezultati: Koncentracija kalcija u slini pušača bila je veća negoli u slini nepušača. Ugradnja alkalno topljivih fluorida na površinu cakline u skupini A bila je statistički značajno veća nego u ostalim dvjema tretiranim skupinama (B i C). Ugradnja alkalno topljivih fluorida na površinu cakline u sve tri skupine koje su bile tretirane slinom i zubnom pastom bila je statistički značajno veća negoli u kontrolnoj skupini. Zaključak: Rezultati pokazuju da slina pušača, koja je imala veću koncentraciju kalcija, povećava ugradnju alkalno topljivih fluorida na površinu cakline, što nas potiče da provedemo opsežniju studiju., Objective: The aim of this in vitro preliminary study was to assess the effect of smokers’ saliva (assuming their higher calcium concentration) in combination with fluoridated toothpaste on the enamel uptake of alkali-soluble (KOH-soluble) fluoride. Materials and methods: Four enamel slabs were cut from each of 14 impacted third molars and randomly assigned into 4 groups. Unstimulated saliva samples were collected from two age and sex matched volunteers. One of the samples was taken from a heavy smoker and the other sample was taken from a non-smoker. Two groups (A and B) were shaken in saliva (A in smoker’s saliva, B in nonsmoker’s saliva) for 5 min and then shaken for 3 min in a toothpaste/deionized water slurry (1:3 w/w). One of the groups (group C) received no saliva treatment and was only shaken in toothpaste slurry for 3 min. The treatment was repeated after a 6-hour period. One of the groups (D) served as a control group with no treatment. Results: Calcium concentration in the smoker’s saliva was higher than in the nonsmoker’s saliva. The enamel uptake of KOH-soluble fluoride in group A was significantly higher than that in the other two treatment groups, B and C. The enamel uptake of KOH-soluble fluoride in all 3 groups was statistically different from that in the control group. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that saliva collected from a heavy smoker, which had higher salivary calcium concentration, enhances enamel uptake of alkali-soluble fluoride and encourages us to conduct a large-scale study.

Background: Fluoride is a chemical element that has shown to cause a significant effect on human health through drinking water. International standards for drinking water has been placed by organizations such as World health organization (WHO), however local conditions as well as diet and exercise play a large role of body fluoride intake during the day. Fluoride administrated in optimal concentration is caries protecting. Excessive amount of fluoride can cause dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis and osteoporosis. To adjust the right amount of fluoride to patient, one needs to know daily intake of fluoride through drinking water since it is the main source of fluoride entry in human body. The aim of this study was to determine fluoride concentration in most frequently domestic used water, which are taped, bottled and filtered water. Methods: Samples of taped waters were obtained from different homes that were supplied from all 5 main water wells of town of Zagreb, Croatia. Samples of filtered water were taken after running through 2 main types of water filtration systems, silver impregnated activated carbon and ion exchange filters and filters based on reverse osmosis and ultra filtration. samples of bottled water were acquired from 3 supermarkets, all of 8 commercially available brands in Zagreb. All samples were tested with a combination fluoride- ion selective electrode (Orion, 96-09- 00, MA, USA) and average reading out of two tests was recorded. Results: The mean fluoride content of the taped water samples were 0.032 mg F/L with a range from 0.027 to 0.037 mg F/L. The mean fluoride content of filtered water samples were 0.022 mg F/L with a range from 0.003 to 0.037 mg F/L. The mean fluoride content of the bottled water samples were were 0.083 mg F/L with a range from 0.015 to 0.301 mg F/L. Discussion: Caries prevention program is done on individual basis. In patients prevention program it is of big importance to investigate source of drinking water. Patients using water filtrated with filters based on reverse osmosis and ultra filtration as main source of drinking water sould have more intense caries prevention program

Background: The role of fluoride in the prevention of dental caries is well known. Optimal daily intake of fluoride should be 0.05 – 0.07 mg F / kg body weight. On the other hand, excessive fluoride intake can cause dental fluorosis and hypomineralisation of enamel characterized by greater surface porosity. To avoid the risk of dental fluorosis daily intake should not exceed a daily level of 0.10 mg F / kg body weight. Current studies showed that fluoride content in water may be highly variable, and water is considered as main source of fluoride. The aim of this study was to determine the fluoride content in bottled waters commercially available in Zagreb, Croatia. Methods: Thirty brands of bottled water were obtained from three supermarkets in Zagreb, Croatia. Bottled waters were divided in three groups: carbonated water, non-carbonated water and flavoured water. Following calibration, two tests were conducted on each bottle using a combination fluoride ion-selective electrode (Orion, 96-09-00, MA, USA). The average reading for each brand was calculated and also compared with the fluoride content printed on the label, if available. Results: The mean (± SD) fluoride content of the carbonated bottled water samples were 0.338 ± 0.328 mg F/l with a range from 0.014 to 1.150 mg F/l. The fluoride content of the non-carbonated bottled water samples were 0.083 ± 0.097 mg F/l with a range from 0.015 to 0.301 mg F/l. The fluoride content of the flavoured bottled water samples were 0.225 ± 0.348 mg F/l with a range from 0.023 to 0.927 mg F/l. Out of the brands tested, 43 % (n = 13) mention the fluoride content on the label. Discussion: Even though the fluoride concentrations in the tested samples were in the safe range it is recommended to list fluoride content on labels of all bottled waters. The decision about fluoridation treatment should be designed having in mind the amount of fluoride intake from beverages and their possible cumulative influence, so the optimal caries- preventive effect can be obtained and the risk of dental fluorosis reduced.

Introduction It is well accepted that sleep and lifestyle habits affect academic success in students. However, sleep patterns and sleep problems amongst dental students have been insufficiently addressed in the literature. The purpose of this study was to evaluate sleep habits of dental students and the relationship between sleep habits and academic performance. Materials and methods A self-administered questionnaire on sleep habits, academic performance and lifestyle was administered. The participants were 447 dental students from Split University Dental Medicine School and Zagreb University Dental Medicine School from the six academic years. The subjects were classified into two groups based on academic success (high-performing vs. low-performing students) for comparison of sleep and lifestyle habits. Results Amongst the whole group of students, average bedtime and wake time during weekday was significantly earlier compared with weekend. Main findings indicate that students with high academic performance had earlier bedtimes during weekdays and weekends, earlier wake times during weekends and shorter sleep latency compared with low academic performing students. Conclusion Self-reported academic performance of dental students in Croatia is associated with timing of sleep and wakefulness, rather than with total sleep time duration.

Objective: To evaluate the antimicrobial effect of different frequencies of brushing with fluoride toothpaste on the levels of salivary mutans streptococci and lactobacilli in children undergoing fixed orthodontic treatment. Methods: The study included 22 patients scheduled for fixed orthodontic therapy distributed between 2 groups with different hygiene regimes. All the subjects received identical braces, bands, and brackets bonded with the same material. Stimulated saliva samples were obtained before placement of the appliance and at 6, 12, and 18 weeks during the therapy. Saliva samples were cultured on selective microbial agar for the detection of microorganisms. Results: Salivary mutans streptococci were significantly suppressed throughout the experimental period in the group that brushed 4 times a day as compared to the group that brushed twice a day. Salivary lactobacilli were not significantly affected by the frequency of brushing with 0.32% sodium fluoride (NaF) toothpaste. Conclusions: The use of 0.32% NaF-containing toothpaste more than 3 times a day has effective antimicrobial activity on mutans streptococci but not lactobacilli in the saliva of children with fixed orthodontic appliances.

Physiology exercise employing simulated human breath-hold diving is used at University of Split School of Medicine to integrate knowledge in cardiovascular and respiratory physiology gained during lectures and seminars. We improved on otherwise widely used model, with emphasis on importance of continuous recordings of physiological signals. Pulsatile arterial pressure, heart rate and arterial oxygen saturation were continuously measured and digitalized signals stored for later analysis. All apneas lasted for 30 seconds, which produced no change in arterial oxygen saturation. Responses in arterial pressure and heart rate to breath-hold in air, breath-hold in water, breathing in air and cold water with snorkel, and applying warm and cold stimulus to forehead were analyzed. We describe our experience with organizing the exercise, and explain how application of modern technology can improve scientific investigation. Several points for discussion are accentuated in relation to possible medical problems (middle ear and sinus problems, regulation of breathing, death of most experienced divers/shallow water blackout) occurring during apnea diving. This study was supported by Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports.

Exposure to acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH) evokes persistent increase in respiratory activity that lasts up to 60 minutes after hypoxic episodes have ceased. This long lasting increase in the phrenic nerve activity is known as phrenic long- term facilitation (LTF). AIH induced phrenic LTF in anesthetized rats is serotonin dependant but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. The present study was performed to determine whether microinjection of broad spectrum 5-HT receptor antagonist, methysergide (4 mM, 20± 5 nl), into the caudal raphe nuclei influences phrenic LTF. Peak integrated phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and respiratory frequency were monitored at 15, 30, and 60 min after five 3-min episodes of normocapnic hypoxia in urethane-anesthetized, vagotomized, paralyzed and ventilated male Sprague-Dawley rats. In control animals, phrenic nerve amplitude was elevated to 66.7± 8.6% one hour after episodic hypoxia, indicating phrenic LTF. Conversely, central microinjections of methysergide prior to AIH exposure attenuated phrenic LTF (2.62± 2.9%). We conclude that methysergide microinjections into the caudal raphe region attenuate phrenic LTF induced by acute intermittent hypoxia, indicating involvement of 5- HT receptor activation at supraspinal level.

Physical and psychosocial stressors in dental schools are associated with adverse health outcome, including low back pain. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical fitness course included in a dental school's curriculum with regard to prevention of low back pain. Ninety first-year and sixty-two final-year dental students completed an anonymous questionnaire on physical fitness habits and low back pain. Fifty voluntarily participated in the Astrand bicycle ergometer test. The question - naire revealed that 37 percent of the students have weekly physical exercise only during the physical fitness course included in the curriculum and 62.5 percent of the students reported low back pain. Final-year dental students had significantly more low back pain than first-year dental students (r=0.21, χ 2 =7.91, p=0.005). Female students had significantly more low back pain than male students (r=0.28, χ 2 =6.61, p=0.0101). The Astrand test revealed that students who attended the physical fitness course had signifi - cantly better physical fitness (p=0.008) than those who did not. Students who exercised more regularly had significantly less low back pain (r =-0.19, χ 2 =11.89, p