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Earlier studies repeatedly showed increased learner motivation due to game elements, while overall cognitive effects on learning outcomes were absent. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is provided by theories integrating cognitive and affective learning processes: the beneficial effect on learner motivation eventually balancing simultaneously higher cognitive processing demands associated with game elements. In this paper, we provide results of an empirical test of this theoretical suggestion. In particular, we report results of a value-added online experiment (with n = 61 participants, mostly students; 44 female, 15 male, 2 diverse; median age: 24 years), comparing a more gameful with a less gameful version of a learning task. In agreement with earlier studies, we find similar cognitive learning outcomes (δ < 0.2), but medium (δ = 0.5) and large (δ = 0.9) effects on affective and motivational outcomes, respectively. Furthermore, mediation models show that a small negative direct effect of game elements on cognitive outcomes (β = −0.2) is indeed effectively cancelled by an indirect path through motivational outcomes (β = +0.4). Overall, our results corroborate the tenability of the integrated cognitive affective model of learning with multimedia. This implies its feasibility in purposefully designing learning environments with specific motivational or cognitive aims in mind.

This International Journal of Serious Games special issue is dedicated to the selected and extended best papers of the 2022 edition of the GALA conference. Professor Kristian Kiili and his team at Tampere University in Finland organized this edition of the conference. Authors of seven highly-rated conference submissions were invited to submit extended papers for this special issue. After peer review process, five extended papers were accepted. These papers shows how game-based learning and serious games continue to evoke extensive research efforts, and clearly demonstrates the breadth of different research approaches used in game-based learning. With such an open-minded approach, it is possible not only to advance our knowledge of game-based learning but also to contribute significantly to the understanding of the factors that influence human learning.

Accumulating evidence indicates that game-based learning is emotionally engaging. However, little is known about the nature of emotions in game-based learning. We extended previous game-based learning research by examining epistemic emotions and their relations to motivational constructs. One-hundred-thirty-one (n=131) 15–18-year-old students played the Antidote COVID-19 game for 25 minutes. Data were collected on their epistemic emotions, flow experience, situational interest, and satisfaction that were measured after the game-playing session. Learners reported significantly higher intensity levels of positive epistemic emotions (excitement, surprise, and curiosity) than negative ones (boredom, anxiety, frustration, and confusion). The co-occurrence network analyses provided new insights into the relationships between motivational and emotional states, where high-intensity flow experience, situational interest, and satisfaction co-occurred the most often with positive epistemic emotions. Results also revealed that a high-intensity flow can be experienced without high levels of situational interest in the topic. That is, gameplay can engage learners even though the learning topic does not interest them. This highlights the importance of intrinsically integrating the learning content with core game mechanics, ensuring the processing of the learning content. The study demonstrated that epistemic emotions, flow experience, satisfaction, and situational interest reveal different qualities of game-based learning. The results suggest that at least flow, situational interest, and epistemic emotions should be measured to understand different dimensions of engagement in game-based learning. Overall, the study advances prior research by clarifying relationships between epistemic emotions and motivational constructs.

The use of game elements in learning tasks is thought to facilitate emotional and behavioral responses as well as learner engagement. So far, however, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of game-based learning. In the current study, we added game elements to a number line estimation task assessing fraction understanding and compared brain activation patterns to a non-game-based task version. Forty-one participants performed both task versions in counterbalanced order while frontal brain activation patterns were assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy (within-subject, cross-sectional study design). Additionally, heart rate, subjective user experience, and task performance were recorded. Task performance, mood, flow experience, as well as heart rate did not differ between task versions. However, the game-based task-version was rated as more attractive, stimulating and novel compared to the non-game-based task version. Additionally, completing the game-based task version was associated with stronger activation in frontal brain areas generally involved in emotional and reward processing as well as attentional processes. These results provide new neurofunctional evidence substantiating that game elements in learning tasks seem to facilitate learning through emotional and cognitive engagement.

Feedback is a critical aspect of optimised learning design, but there are few, if any, feedback models that map different types of feedback and how they may assist students to increase performance and enhance their learning experience. This research paper outlines a feedback model as an extension of the four-dimensional framework which includes a consideration of the type, the content, the format, and the frequency of feedback, as well as the agent which delivers it. This model is based upon an understanding of learning in the context of designing learning experiences and utilises a game-based model of learning to understand the importance of motivation and autonomy in learners to enhance and accelerate learning. The framework is developed and reflected upon by analysing two cases: a medical triage case in which the timing and frequency of feedback proved critical, and a business simulation which illuminated the need for a range of types of feedback and to be aware of the possibility of different agents (instructor peer and game) that can deliver feedback. The extended model may help game and learning designers alike to discern different types of feedback, both in games and more generally, in more explicit and nuanced ways.

Gaming may not primarily be associated with the elderly part of the population, but senior gamers represent a growing proportion. Evaluating the applicability of educational games across the lifespan is therefore crucial to better understand potential requirements in different domains and age groups. The current study applied a math learning game to participants from 19 to 79 years of age. We examined age-related differences along three domains: cognition, as measured by in-game performance, basic player experience with the game, and general player attitudes towards technology. Analyses of performance metrics related to speed clearly reflected an age-related decline, well in line with known effects from cognitive ageing. In contrast, error-metrics were associated with educational background. At the player experience level, however, we found no differences across the lifespan. All participants rated the game equally (positive). Furthermore, our results showed that attitudes towards technology only differed occasionally, for instance, senior participants seemed to be more technologically interested. Taken together, scoring systems as well as other in-game metrics based on performance, especially related to speed, should be adapted appropriately to player’s age. Finally, elderly players’ experience with the game and overall attitudes towards technology appeared comparable to other younger age groups.

Inclusion of game elements in learning environments to increase motivation and learning outcome is becoming increasingly popular. However, underlying mechanisms of game-based learning have not been studied sufficiently yet. In the present study, we investigated effects of game-based learning environments on a neurofunctional level. In particular, 59 healthy adults completed a game-based version (including game elements such as a narrative and virtual incentives) as well as a non-game-based version of a number line estimation task, to improve fractional knowledge, while their brain activity was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy. Behavioral performance was comparable across the two versions, although there was a tendency that less errors were made in the game-based version. However, subjective user experience differed significantly between versions. Participants rated the game-based version as more attractive, novel, and stimulating but less efficient than the non-game-based version. Additionally, positive affect was reported to be higher while engaging in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based task version. Corroborating these user reports, we identified increased brain activation in areas associated with emotion and reward processing while playing the game-based version, which might be driven by rewarding elements of the game-based version. Moreover, frontal areas associated with attention were also more activated in the game-based version of the task. Hence, we observed converging evidence on a user experience and neurofunctional level indicating that the game-based version was more rewarding as well as emotionally and attentionally engaging. These results underscore the potential of game-based learning environments to promote more efficient learning by means of attention and reward up-tuning.

There is accumulating evidence that engagement with digital math games can improve students’ learning. However, in what way individual variables critical to game-based learning influence students' learning success still needs to be explored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of students’ acceptance of game-based learning (e.g., perceived usefulness of a game as a learning tool, perceived ease of use), as well as their intrinsic motivation for math (e.g., their math interest, self-efficacy) and quality of playing experience on learning success in a game-based rational number training. Additionally, we investigated the influence of the former variables on quality of playing experience (operationalized as perceived flow). Results indicated that the game-based training was effective. Moreover, students’ learning success and their quality of playing experience were predicted by measures of acceptance of game-based learning and intrinsic motivation for math. These findings indicated that learning success in game-based learning approaches are driven by students’ acceptance of the game as a learning tool and content-specific intrinsic motivation. Therefore, the present work is of particular interest to researchers, developers, and practitioners working with game-based learning environments.

The entertaining elements implemented in a serious game are key factors in determining whether a player will be engaged in a play-learn process and able to achieve the desired learning outcomes. Thus, optimization of subjective playing experience is a crucial part of a game design process. Flow theory can be adopted for measuring user experience and analyzing the quality of serious game designs. In addition, flow seems to have a positive influence on performance enhancement, learning and engagement. The focus of this review is especially on examining the meaning of flow in the context of serious games as well as exploring the relationship between flow and learning, factors that influence occurrence of flow and how flow is operationalized. The review revealed that there are mainly conceptual considerations about flow in serious games, but no robust empirical evidence about the meaning of flow. This is in line with other studies. We argue that research on flow should focus on the specific aspects related to the very nature of serious games that combine enjoyment and learning. Furthermore, new methods to measure flow and analyse the data need to be developed and studied.

Adaptive expertise is a highly sought after, but difficult to achieve, outcome of mathematics education. Many teaching methods appear to support the development of adaptive expertise only in a small proportion of students. Game-based learning environments may be useful for supporting adaptive expertise. Therefore, we carried out a quasi-experimental classroom intervention to examine the possibility of using a game-based learning environment to promote adaptive rational number knowledge, a potential indicator of adaptive expertise in the domain of rational numbers. The Number Line Elaboration and Exploration learning environment relied on the increasing elaboration of the number line analogy as a means for students to explore connections between multiple aspects of rational number knowledge. Our results show the game-based learning environment was successful in promoting adaptive rational number knowledge. These results provide directions for the development and examination of how learning environments may be able to support adaptive expertise.

This perspective piece explores the transformative potential and associated challenges of large language models (LLMs) in education and how those challenges might be addressed utilizing playful and game-based learning. While providing many opportunities, the stochastic elements incorporated in how present LLMs process text, requires domain expertise for a critical evaluation and responsible use of the generated output. Yet, due to their low opportunity cost, LLMs in education may pose some risk of over-reliance, potentially and unintendedly limiting the development of such expertise. Education is thus faced with the challenge of preserving reliable expertise development while not losing out on emergent opportunities. To address this challenge, we first propose a playful approach focusing on skill practice and human judgment. Drawing from game-based learning research, we then go beyond this playful account by reflecting on the potential of well-designed games to foster a willingness to practice, and thus nurturing domain-specific expertise. We finally give some perspective on how a new pedagogy of learning with AI might utilize LLMs for learning by generating games and gamifying learning materials, leveraging the full potential of human-AI interaction in education.

This study investigated how sixth graders' credibility evaluation self-efficacy was associated with their ability to evaluate the credibility of online texts. Students (N = 265, M[subscript age] = 12.45) worked in a web-based environment, where they read and evaluated two more credible texts and two less credible texts that required confirming and questioning the texts' credibility, respectively. Students were asked to evaluate the author's expertise, the author's benevolence, and the quality of evidence in each text. They were also asked to assess their credibility evaluation self-efficacy during the task. The structural equation model indicated that students' self-efficacy was positively associated with their ability to confirm the more credible texts but not with their ability to question the less credible texts. The instructional implications of this study are discussed.

Game-based learning solutions provide possibilities to teach conceptual number knowledge in engaging ways. The evaluation of user experience and error-proneness of the user interface are crucial in the educational game development process and game-based assessment. In the present study, we investigated how two different user interfaces of the rational number game, Semideus, influenced the game character controlling accuracy and user experience. Two user interfaces varying in the intensity of physical activities needed for controlling the game character were compared. Thirty-six university students played both Semideus game versions for 20 minutes in randomized order. In order to compare the tilting (low physical intensity) and walking (high physical intensity) user interfaces we used stealth assessment as an objective measure of controlling accuracy as well as flow experience and playability questionnaires as subjective measures of user experience. The results revealed that there was no significant difference in game controlling accuracy between the user interface solutions, suggesting that the intensity of the physical activities did not influence the error-proneness. However, the subjective measures indicated that students appreciated the tilting user interface significantly more than the walking user interface. Implications of the findings for future research and further development of the Semideus game are discussed.

This paper examines the experiences of players of a problem-solving game. The main purpose of the paper is to validate the flow antecedents included in an experiential gaming model and to study their influence on the flow experience. Additionally, the study aims to operationalize the flow construct in a game context and to start a scale development process for assessing the experience of flow in game settings. Results indicated that the flow antecedents studied—challenges matched to a player’s skill level, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, a sense of control, and playability—should be considered in game design because they contribute to the flow experience. Furthermore, the indicators of the actual flow experience were distinguished.

The challenge of delivering personalized learning experiences is often increased by the size of classrooms and online learning communities. Serious Games (SGs) are increasingly recognized for their potential to improve education. However, the issues related to their development and their level of effectiveness can be seriously affected when brought too rapidly into growing online learning communities. Deeper insights into how the students are playing is needed to deliver a comprehensive and intelligent learning framework that facilitates better understanding of learners' knowledge, effective assessment of their progress and continuous evaluation and optimization of the environments in which they learn. This paper discusses current SOTA and aims to explore the potential in the use of games and learning analytics towards scaffolding and supporting teaching and learning experience. The conceptual model (ecosystem and architecture) discussed in this paper aims to highlight the key considerations that may advance the current state of learning analytics, adaptive learning and SGs, by leveraging SGs as an suitable medium for gathering data and performing adaptations.

The challenge of educational game design is to develop solutions that please as many players as possible, but are still educationally effective. How learning happens in games is methodologically very challenging to point out and thus it is usually avoided. In this paper we tackle this challenge with eye tracking method. The aim of this research is to study the meaning of cognitive feedback in educational games and evaluate the usefulness of eye tracking method in game based learning research and game design. Based on perceptual data we evaluated the playing behavior of 43 Finnish and Austrian children aged from 7 to 16. Four different games were used as test-beds. The results indicated that players’ perception patterns varied a lot and some players even missed relevant information during playing. The results showed that extraneous elements should be eliminated from the game world in order to avoid incidental processing in crucial moments. Animated content easily grasps player’s attention, which may disturb learning activities. Especially low performers and inattentive players have difficulties in distinguishing important and irrelevant content and tend to stick to salient elements no matter of their importance for a task. However, it is not reasonable to exclude all extraneous elements because it decreases engagement and immersion. Thus, balancing of extraneous and crucial elements is essential. Overall, the results showed that eye tracking can provide important information from game based learning process and game designs. However, we have to be careful when interpreting the perceptual data, because we cannot be sure if the player understands everything that he or she is paying attention to. Thus, eye tracking should be complemented with offline methods like retrospective interview that was successfully used in this research.