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Mathematical learning disabilities (MLDs) are often associated with math anxiety, yet until now, very little is known about the causal relations between calculation ability and math anxiety during early primary school years. The main aim of this study was to longitudinally investigate the relationship between calculation ability, self-reported evaluation of mathematics, and math anxiety in 140 primary school children between the end of first grade and the middle of third grade. Structural equation modeling revealed a strong influence of calculation ability and math anxiety on the evaluation of mathematics but no effect of math anxiety on calculation ability or vice versa--contrasting with the frequent clinical reports of math anxiety even in very young MLD children. To summarize, our study is a first step toward a better understanding of the link between math anxiety and math performance in early primary school years performance during typical and atypical courses of development. (Contains 8 figures, 2 tables, and 1 note.)

Studies in children with AD(H)D without mathematical learning disability (MLD) as well as studies on the effects of methylphenidate on arithmetic have shown that most deficits in mathematics and most error types commonly described as specific to developmental dyscalculia (e. g., finger-counting, fact-retrieval deficit, complex counting, difficulties with carry/borrow procedures, self-corrections) cannot be classified as such and should thus not be used for the differential diagnosis of primary dyscalculia and secondary MLD. This article proposes using the overall score in the dyscalculia test Basis-Math 4-8 (Moser Opitz et al., 2010) as well as implausible subtraction errors as a marker for dyscalculia and the number of self-corrections made during the test as a cognitive marker for attention deficits. Hierarchical cluster analyses were calculated in a sample of 51 clinically referred children with normal IQ and suspicion of MLD, using IQ, years of schooling, overall score of the Basis-Math 4–8 and number of self-corrections in this test as variables. The results revealed a subgroup with primary dyscalculia as well as three subgroups with secondary MLD (two with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, one with depression and one small subgroup with high IQ). In conclusion, the Basis-Math 4–8 (Moser Opitz et al., 2010) can offer substantial information for the differential diagnosis of dyscalculia and secondary deficits in mathematics due to attention problems and enable optimization of treatment decisions for the different groups.

Psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence, in particular attention deficit disorder or specific learning disorders like developmental dyslexia and developmental dyscalculia, affect academic performance and learning at school. Recent advances in neuroscientific research have incited an intensive debate both in the general public and in the field of educational and instructional science as well as to whether and to what extent these new findings in the field of neuroscience might be of importance for school-related learning and instruction. In this review, we first summarize neuroscientific findings related to the development of attention, working memory and executive functions in typically developing children and then evaluate their relevance for school-related learning. We present an overview of neuroimaging studies of specific learning disabilities such as developmental dyslexia and developmental dyscalculia, and critically discuss their practical implications for educational and teaching practice, teacher training, early diagnosis as well as prevention and disorder-specific therapy. We conclude that the new interdisciplinary field of neuroeducation cannot be expected to provide direct innovative educational applications (e.g., teaching methods). Rather, the future potential of neuroscience lies in creating a deeper understanding of the underlying cognitive mechanisms and pathomechanisms of learning processes and learning disorders.

Finger counting has been associated to arithmetic learning in children. We examined children with (n = 14) and without (n = 84) mathematics learning difficulties with ages between 8 and 11 years. Deficits in finger gnosia were found in association to mathematical difficulties. Finger gnosia was particularly relevant for the performance in word problems requiring active manipulation of small magnitudes in the range between 1 and 10. Moreover, the deficits in finger gnosia could not be attributed to a shortage in working memory capacity but rather to a specific inability to use fingers to transiently represent magnitudes, tagging to be counted objects, and reducing the cognitive load necessary to solve arithmetic problems. Since finger gnosia was more related to symbolic than to non-symbolic magnitude processing, finger-related representation of magnitude seems to be an important link for learning the mapping of analog onto discrete symbolic magnitudes.

Objectives: Is the FRA a reliable and valid instrument? Are there any gender differences concerning math anxiety? Are there any developmental changes in this regard in the course of the early grades?, Methods: Together with the dyscalculia test TEDI-MATH, the FRA was presented to a total of 450 children from the first to the third grade of primary school (at least 40 girls and 40 boys per semester)., Results: The total scale has an internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) between 0.83 and 0.91. Correlations between arithmetic skills and the FRA scales were mostly significant. The significantly higher negative scores for girls were taken into account by providing standard scores corrected for gender. No systematic developmental changes could be observed., Conclusions: The FRA is the first German math anxiety questionnaire for primary school children. High reliability, standard scores corrected for gender, and economic handling make it an instrument well suited for use in clinical settings (e.g., dyscalculia diagnostics and intervention).