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The aim of the project was to study human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) incidence, sociodemographic and behavioral correlates of HIV acquisition among injection drug users (IDUs).A total of 717 IDUs were recruited, tested, and counseled for HIV-1; 466 HIV-negative participants were enrolled and followed-up at 6 and 12 months. Sociodemographic and behavioral data were collected during each study visit. The association of sociodemographic and behavioral factors to HIV-1 incidence was assessed.During the 9-month recruitment period, 717 IDUs were screened and 466 participants were enrolled. HIV-1 prevalence at baseline was 35%. Most enrolled subjects were young (median age 30), male (75%), injected heroin in the previous 3 months (86%), about 50% had shared syringes and other paraphernalia, and 44% had unprotected sex in the last month. The retention rate at the 12-month follow-up was 72% and the adjusted retention rate was 88%. The HIV incidence rate was 7.2/100 person-years. HIV incidence was significantly associated with specific drug risk behaviors, including injecting the mixture of heroin and psychostimulants, the frequency of injecting in groups with other people, and having more drug dealers.The St Petersburg IDUs cohort demonstrates one of the highest HIV incidence rates in the world. In 2004 to 2006, the HIV incidence was 4.5, in 2005 to 2007-19.6, and in 2008 to 2009-7.2/100 person-years. The peak of HIV epidemic among IDUs in St Petersburg, as determined by 3 independent cohort studies, was in 2006 to 2007. Interventions targeting IDUs with long experience of heroin injection and high levels of injection risk behaviors are urgently needed.

The relationship between level of childhood abuse (physical and emotional) and sexual risk behavior of sexually transmitted disease clinic patients in St. Petersburg, Russia was examined through path analyses. Mediating variables investigated were: Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT), drinking motives (for social interaction, to enhance mood, to facilitate sexual encounters), intimate partner violence (IPV), anxiety, and depression symptoms. Results showed a significant indirect effect of childhood abuse on women's sexual risk behavior: higher level of childhood abuse was associated with a greater likelihood of IPV, motivations to drink, leading to higher AUDIT scores and correlated to higher likelihood of having multiple, new or casual sexual partner(s). No significant effect was identified in paths to condom use. Among men, childhood abuse had no significant effect on sexual risk behavior. Reduction in alcohol-related sexual risk behavior may be achieved by addressing the effects of childhood abuse among female participants.

Cultural adaptation is an important step in the process of implementing health promotion interventions that, having been proven to be effective in one culture, are being applied in another. This study describes the results of a formative investigation to culturally adapt a STI/HIV risk reduction intervention for use in St. Petersburg, Russia. Analyses of data from brief elicitation interviews, focus groups, community experts, and a pilot test of the adapted intervention identified environmental, cognitive-information processing, and affect-motivation factors that needed to be addressed during the adaptation process. The participant/counselor relationship was adapted to reflect a hierarchical (cf. collaborative) relationship in order to accommodate Russian expectations about patient interactions with healthcare experts. Key skills building activities (e.g., identification of personal risk behaviors, role-playing) were approached gradually or indirectly in order to maintain participants' engagement in the intervention, and close-ended questions were added to assist participants in understanding unfamiliar concepts such as "triggers" and self-efficacy. Information about the prevalence of HIV/STI infections and alcohol use included data specific to St. Petersburg to increase the personal relevance of these materials and messages. Intervention components were tailored to participants' risk reduction and informational needs. No gender differences that would have justified adaptation of the intervention approach or content were noted. Examples of specific adaptations and the key issues to attend to when adapting behavioral interventions for use in Russian clinical settings are discussed.

Objectives: To examine correlates of perpetration and victimization of intimate partner violence (IPV) under and not under the influence of a substance, we conducted a study among women in Russia., Methods: In 2011, a cross-sectional survey was conducted among patients receiving services at a clinic for sexually transmitted infections in St. Petersburg, Russia. Multinomial logistic regression was used for analysis., Results: Of 299 women, 104 (34.8%) and 113 (37.8%) reported a history of IPV perpetration and victimization, respectively. Nearly half (47.1%) of perpetrators and 61.1% of victims reported that the latest IPV event (perpetration and victimization, respectively) was experienced under the influence of a substance. Factors independently associated with IPV victimization under the influence of a substance were alcohol misuse and a higher number of lifetime sex partners, whereas only experience of childhood abuse (emotional and physical abuse) was independently associated with IPV victimization that did not occur under the influence of a substance. Childhood physical abuse, lower age of first sex, sensation seeking, and alcohol misuse were independently associated with IPV perpetration under the influence of a substance, while only childhood abuse (emotional and physical abuse) was independently associated with IPV perpetration that did not occur under the influence of a substance., Conclusions: IPV under and not under the influence of a substance had different correlates (e.g., alcohol misuse and sensation seeking). Despite the strong association between substance use and IPV, experience of childhood abuse is an important predictor of IPV perpetration and victimization in Russia, above and beyond substance use.

Objectives: To assess risk for unintended pregnancy, this study describes the correlates of unprotected sexual intercourse (UPSI) among women who inject illicit drugs or who have sexual partners who inject drugs in St Petersburg, Russia., Methods: Data from a cross-sectional survey and biological test results collected between 2005 and 2008 from 202 Russian women (143 drug injectors and 59 non-drug injectors) were analysed. Multivariate regression was used to investigate the correlates of UPSI occurring at the women's last sexual act. Independent variables included socio-demographics, age at sexual debut, first sexual encounter perceived as involuntary, number of pregnancies and number of children for which the participant is the primary caretaker, heavy sporadic drinking (i.e. consuming more than five drinks in 2 hours at least twice a month), at-risk drinking per the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT-C) score, and sexually transmitted infections (HIV-1, syphilis serology, Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrheae)., Results: Sixty-seven percent of women reported UPSI at last intercourse. UPSI was independently associated with heavy sporadic drinking [odds ratio (OR) 2.8, 95% CI 1.2-6.6] and having been pregnant (OR 2.25, 95% CI 1.1-4.6)., Conclusions: Despite the high risk for HIV acquisition or transmission and unintended pregnancy, condom use among the study population is low. Programmes to investigate and improve contraceptive use, including condom use, among this vulnerable group of women are needed. Such programmes may require identifying and targeting female reproductive health concerns and problem drinking, particularly heavy sporadic drinking, rather than conventional measures of alcohol misuse.

The study examined the efficacy of a brief theory-based counseling intervention to reduce sexual HIV risk behaviors among STI clinic patients in St. Petersburg, Russia. Men and women (n = 307) were recruited to receive either: (1) a 60-minute motivational/skills-building counseling session dealing with sexual HIV risk reduction, or (2) written HIV prevention information material. Participants completed baseline, three- and six-month assessments in the period between July 2009 and May 2011. Compared to the control group, the face-to-face counseling intervention showed significant increases in the percentage of condom use and consistent condom use, and significant decreases in the number of unprotected sexual acts and frequency of drug use before sex. Intervention effects dissipated by 6 months. The brief counseling intervention may effectively reduce HIV sexual risk behaviors and enhance protective behaviors among STI clinic patients in Russia. Short-term positive effects were achieved with a single one hour counseling session.

We investigated whether inebriation was associated with having non-main partners and unprotected sex with non-main partners and whether drinking motivations were associated with sexual risk behaviors among patients attending an STD clinic in St Petersburg, Russia. A cross-sectional behavior survey was applied to 362 participants between 2008 and 2009. Multivariate logistic regression was used for analysis. At-risk drinking per Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C) criteria (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.4-4.4) was independently associated with having non-main sexual partners. Inebriation (OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.3-8.1) but not at-risk drinking or drinking prior to sex was associated with unprotected sex with non-main partners. Among drinkers, the consumption of alcohol to facilitate sexual encounters (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.6-4.5) was associated with having non-main sexual partners. HIV prevention programs in Russia must address inebriation in addition to conventional patterns of problem drinking such as those measured by AUDIT-C and consider individuals' motivations to drink that lead to sexual risk taking.

This study investigates whether age at first alcoholic drink is associated with sexual risk behaviors among injection drug users (IDUs) and non-IDUs who are sexual partners of IDUs in St. Petersburg, Russia. A path analysis was used to test a model of age at first drink, age at sexual debut, age at first drug use, current substance use patterns and current sexual risk behaviors among 558 participants. Results revealed that age at first drink had an effect on multiple sex partners through age at sexual debut and injection drug use, but no effect on unprotected sex. Age at first drug use was not related to sexual risk behaviors. Investigation of age of drinking onset may provide useful information for programs to reduce sexual risk behaviors and injection drug use. Different paths leading to unprotected sex and multiple sexual partners call for different approaches to reduce sexual risk behaviors among this population.

Objective: Growing evidence indicates that emotional distress such as depression may have the potential to increase the risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). This study investigated the association between depressive symptoms and unprotected sex among STI clinic patients in Russia., Methods: We used pre-intervention data collected between 2009 and 2010 among 307 participants who were enrolled in a randomized intervention trial conducted in an STI clinic in St. Petersburg, Russia. The 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale was used to identify depressive symptoms and two indicators were used to measure unprotected sex. Logistic regression models were applied for the analysis and controlled for the following potential confounders: demographic characteristics, being a commercial sex worker, history of drug injection and alcohol misuse., Results: Of the participants, 20.2% were classified as having depressive symptoms. About 59.6% of the participants did not use a condom during the last sexual intercourse and 24.4% never used condoms in the past 3months. Depressive symptoms were significantly associated with both indicators of unprotected sex in two different models: odds ratio (OR)=2.36, 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.24-4.48 for unprotected sex in the last sexual intercourse; and OR=2.71, 95% CI, 1.43-5.11 for unprotected sex in the past 3months., Conclusion: Depressive symptoms were common and were strongly associated with unprotected sex among study participants in St. Petersburg, Russia. Efforts to promote condom use should address lack of condom use due to depressive symptoms., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

We conducted a cross-sectional study to determine whether the time between two consecutive sexual partnerships (gap) is associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in Russia. A self-administered questionnaire was administered to STI clinic patients in St. Petersburg and participant's STI data at the time of enrollment in the study was collected from medical charts. The length of the gap between partnerships was divided into four categories: overlapping (0 or negative gap), short gaps (1-90 days), mid-length gaps (91-365 days), and long gaps (366 days or more). Among the 659 respondents, 22.6% had overlapping partnerships, and 13.7, 4.2, and 59.5% had short, mid-length and long gaps, respectively. Short gaps (OR 2.34; 95% CI 1.38-3.95), but not overlapping relationships, were independently associated with STIs when contrasted against long term gaps. HIV prevention programs for Russian STI clinic patients should therefore focus also on prolonging the gap between consecutive, monogamous sexual partnerships.

Whether intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and victimization are associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk behaviors is seldom investigated in Russia. The present study hypothesized that patients from a sexually transmitted infection center in Russia who perpetrated IPV or were victims of IPV would be more likely to have HIV risk behaviors including injection drug use, multiple partners, and inconsistent condom use than those who were not involved with IPV. We used a self-administered questionnaire to collect information from 381 patients on demographics, health status, injection drug use, sexual behaviors, and violence involving sexual partners between 2008 and 2009. After including sociodemographics, lifetime IPV perpetration was significantly associated with having had multiple sexual partners among male patients (odds ratio [OR] = 2.61, p < .05). IPV victimization was significantly associated with injection drug use among male and female patients (OR = 5.22, p < .05) and with inconsistent condom use among female patients (OR = 8.93, p < .05). IPV perpetration and victimization were common among male and female study participants and were associated with greater HIV risk behaviors. HIV prevention programs in Russia should address the risks associated with IPV among people at risk for HIV., (Copyright © 2012 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.)

BACKGROUND: Gender differences in the relationship between alcohol use and depressive symptoms are inconsistent, and few studies have addressed this issue in Russia. Because this finding may have important implications for interventions to reduce alcohol misuse or alcohol related problems in Russia, we conducted a study to investigate whether the association between alcohol use and depressive symptoms differs by gender at high risk for HIV. METHODS: We used the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale to measure alcohol use and depressive symptoms among 307 patients who attended a clinic for sexually transmitted infections in St. Petersburg, Russia. Logistic regression models were applied for the analysis. RESULTS: The comparison of data between men and women revealed a significant quadratic term of alcohol use and significant interactions between alcohol use and gender on depressive symptoms. Men with an AUDIT score in the first and fourth quartiles were more likely to report depressive symptoms in comparison to men in the second quartile. Their odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were 7.54 (2.00-28.51) and 5.06 (1.31-19.63), respectively. Among women, a linear trend was observed such that those who misused alcohol were three times more likely to have depressive symptoms than those who did not misuse alcohol (OR = 3.03, 95% CI, 1.05-8.80). CONCLUSION: The association between alcohol use and depressive symptoms differed by gender. Additional research is needed to investigate this relationship in Russia. Strategies to reduce alcohol-related problems in Russia may need to consider these differences.

Background: Alcohol misuse has been linked to intimate partner violence (IPV). However, this association is not usually examined in Russia. Moreover, more investigation is required as to whether specific drinking contexts are also associated with IPV. The objectives of this study are: to investigate whether alcohol misuse is associated with IPV and to further examine whether specific drinking contexts among drinkers are associated with IPV., Methods: A questionnaire was used to collect information on demographics, health status, alcohol use, and violence involving sexual partners among 440 participants who were recruited from an STI (sexually transmitted infection) clinic center in St. Petersburg, Russia for a cross-sectional study from 2008 to 2009. Multivariate logistic regression was used for analysis., Results: Overall, 47.0% participants were classified as misusing alcohol and 7.2% participants perpetrated IPV in the past three months. Participants with alcohol misuse were 3.28 times (OR: 3.28; 95% CI: 1.34-8.04) as likely as those without alcohol misuse to perpetrate IPV. Among participants who had consumed alcohol in the past three months, those who usually drank on the streets or in parks (OR: 5.62; 95% CI: 1.67-18.90) were more likely to perpetrate IPV., Conclusions: Both alcohol misuse and certain drinking contexts (e.g., drinking on the streets or at parks) were associated with IPV. The association between drinking contexts and IPV needs further investigation, as do the underlying mechanisms for this association. IPV prevention initiatives might benefit from reducing alcohol misuse. Drinking contexts such as drinking on the streets or at parks as well as the factors related to the use of alcohol in these contexts may also need to be addressed.

Background: This cross-sectional study estimated the prevalence of contraceptive methods and investigated whether abortion rates influence contraceptive behaviour among injection drug-using (IDU) women in St Petersburg, Russia., Methodology: A self-administered questionnaire of behaviour in the last 3 months was applied to a convenient sample of IDU women., Results: Of 80 sexually active participants, 67% had had an abortion. No participant reported using hormonal contraceptives or intrauterine devices (IUDs). The only valid method of contraception used was condoms, which was reported by half of the participants. Consistent condom use was reported by 22% of participants and was no more likely among those who had an abortion. Condom use was significantly associated with having multiple or casual sex partners [prevalence ratio (PR) 1.75, 95% (confidence interval) CI 1.11-2.78, p = 0.01], having an IDU sex partner (PR 0.55, 95% CI 0.36-0.85, p = 0.029) and with a negative attitude toward condoms (PR 0.53, 95% CI 0.33-0.84, p = 0.01). Abortions were less likely among those who had multiple or casual sex partners (PR 0.69, 95% CI 0.49-0.97, p = 0.03)., Conclusions: Despite the high prevalence of abortions among IDU women, none reported the use of hormonal contraception or IUDs. Having had an abortion was not associated with greater likelihood of using condoms. Participants mostly used condoms with casual or multiple sex partners, suggesting that condoms were used mainly to prevent HIV/sexually transmitted infection transmission and not to prevent pregnancy. Programmes to prevent unwanted pregnancies and reduce abortion-related health risks among this understudied vulnerable group are needed.

Background: Sexual concurrency is associated with higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) including HIV. However, most studies have focused only on the concurrency of the individual participant (individual concurrency) and not on concurrency of their sexual partners (partner concurrency). Furthermore, limited concurrency information is available in Russia where HIV epidemic is growing rapidly. We therefore examine the prevalence and correlates of individual and partner concurrency, and determine whether either type of concurrency is associated with diagnosed STDs among STD clinic attendees in St. Petersburg, Russia., Methods: In total, 799 attendees were recruited into a cross-sectional study between 2006 and 2008. A questionnaire collected information on demographics, medical history, sexual behaviors, and up to 3 sexual partners during the preceding year., Results: The prevalence of individual and partner concurrency was 24.7% and 45.4%, respectively. Both were correlated with marital status, weekly alcohol consumption, age at first sex, and number of lifetime sexual partners. Partner concurrency was significantly associated with diagnosed STDs (odds ratio = 2.06; 95% confidence interval = 1.35-3.15). No significant association between individual concurrency and STDs was observed., Conclusions: Partner concurrency, not individual concurrency, is independently associated with increased odds of having an STD in the studied population.

Background: To date, the great majority of Russian HIV infections have been diagnosed among IDUs and concerns about the potential for a sexual transmission of HIV beyond the IDU population have increased. This study investigated differences in the prevalence of sexual risk behaviors between IDUs and non-IDUs in St. Petersburg, Russia and assessed associations between substance use patterns and sexual risks within and between those two groups., Methods: Cross-sectional survey data and biological test results from 331 IDUs and 65 non-IDUs who have IDU sex partners were analyzed. Multivariate regression was employed to calculate measures of associations., Results: IDUs were less likely than non-IDUs to report multiple sexual partners and unprotected sex with casual partners. The quantity, frequency and intensity of alcohol use did not differ between IDUs and non-IDUs, but non-IDUs were more likely to engage in alcohol use categorized as risky per the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT-C). Risky sexual practices were independently associated with monthly methamphetamine injection among IDUs and with risky alcohol use among non-IDUs. Having sex when high on alcohol or drugs was associated with unprotected sex only among IDUs., Conclusions: Greater prevalence of sexual risk among non-IDUs who have IDU sex partners compared to IDUs suggests the potential for sexual transmission of HIV from the high-prevalence IDU population into the general population. HIV prevention programs among IDUs in St. Petersburg owe special attention to risky alcohol use among non-IDUs who have IDU sex partners and the propensity of IDUs to have sex when high on alcohol or drugs and forgo condoms.

Aims: This study investigates whether sexual transmitted behaviors and infections (STIs) among injection drug users (IDUs) may promote the spread of HIV among and beyond IDUs in Russia., Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of behavior and tested for STIs in a convenience sample of 159 IDUs in St. Petersburg, Russia., Results: The median age was 27 and 57% were male. Almost all were sexually active, half had casual partners and 40% reported > or =2 sex partners in the previous 3 months. Of those who answered, 81% reported sex without condoms, 44% reported having sex with at least one partner who was not an IDU. Of 139 (87%) subjects who were actively injecting, 29% reported receptive syringe sharing. Twenty percent of subjects were seropositive for HIV-1 and 42% of HIV-1-negative subjects tested positive for an STI., Conclusions: The sample exhibited high levels of sexual risk behaviors and STIs, and a large proportion had sexual partners who were not IDUs. This population requires comprehensive interventions that ensures access to condoms and sterile injection supplies and that encourage safer sexual behaviors in an attempt to keep sexual transmission of HIV low., ((c) 2008 S. Karger AG, Basel)