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The incidence of milk leakage (ML) after dry-off (DO) and related risk factors was studied in 1,175 dairy cows from 41 commercial herds in 8 European countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. Milk leakage was assessed twice for 30 s each during 3 visits at 20 to 24 h, 30 to 34 h, and 48 to 52 h after DO. Information related to dry-cow management and udder health was collected at herd and cow level, including individual somatic cell count (ISCC) from test-day controls and occurrence of clinical mastitis cases from DO until 30 d in lactation. Mixed-effect logistic regression analyses were used to identify possible risk factors for ML and to study the association between ML and new intramammary infections. Intramammary infections were defined as clinical mastitis cases during the dry period and in the first 30 d in lactation or a rise in ISCC from before to after the dry period (threshold: 200,000 cells/mL) or both. Milk leakage was observed in 24.5% of the cows between 20 and 52 h after DO, where the herd incidence varied between 0.0 and 77.8%. The reduction in number of milkings in the weeks before DO had statistically significant effect on the ML incidence. When the milking frequency was reduced from 3 times/d to 2 or maintained at twice a day, cows had 11 (95% CI = 3.43–35.46) or 9 (95% CI = 1.85–48.22) times higher odds of leaking milk, respectively, compared with cows where the milking frequency was reduced from twice to once a day. Also, the milk production 24 h before DO was associated with ML incidence. Hence, cows with a milk production between 13 and 21 L or above 21 L had 2.3 (95% CI = 1.48–3.53) and 3.1 (95% CI = 1.79–5.3) times higher odds of leaking milk, respectively, compared with cows with a milk production below 13 L. A higher ML incidence was present in the group of cows with an average ISCC in the last 3 mo before DO ≥200,000 cells/mL (odds ratio = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.13–2.41) compared with cows wi

The incidence of milk leakage (ML) after dry-off (DO) and related risk factors was studied in 1,175 dairy cows from 41 commercial herds in 8 European countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. Milk leakage was assessed twice for 30 s each during 3 visits at 20 to 24 h, 30 to 34 h, and 48 to 52 h after DO. Information related to dry-cow management and udder health was collected at herd and cow level, including individual somatic cell count (ISCC) from test-day controls and occurrence of clinical mastitis cases from DO until 30 d in lactation. Mixed-effect logistic regression analyses were used to identify possible risk factors for ML and to study the association between ML and new intramammary infections. Intramammary infections were defined as clinical mastitis cases during the dry period and in the first 30 d in lactation or a rise in ISCC from before to after the dry period (threshold: 200,000 cells/mL) or both. Milk leakage was observed in 24.5% of the cows between 20 and 52 h after DO, where the herd incidence varied between 0.0 and 77.8%. The reduction in number of milkings in the weeks before DO had statistically significant effect on the ML incidence. When the milking frequency was reduced from 3 times/d to 2 or maintained at twice a day, cows had 11 (95% CI = 3.43-35.46) or 9 (95% CI = 1.85-48.22) times higher odds of leaking milk, respectively, compared with cows where the milking frequency was reduced from twice to once a day. Also, the milk production 24 h before DO was associated with ML incidence. Hence, cows with a milk production between 13 and 21 L or above 21 L had 2.3 (95% CI = 1.48-3.53) and 3.1 (95% CI = 1.79-5.3) times higher odds of leaking milk, respectively, compared with cows with a milk production below 13 L. A higher ML incidence was present in the group of cows with an average ISCC in the last 3 mo before DO ≥200,000 cells/mL (odds ratio = 1.7; 95% confidence interval = 1.13 - 2.41)

Clinical mastitis of dairy cows is a visible inflammation of the udder, which is usually caused by bacteria and treated with antibiotics. Although pressure is increasing to reduce antibiotic usage in livestock in the European Union, feedback from the field suggests that clinical mastitis treatment is frequently repeated after the initial per-label treatment, thereby extending treatment duration. The aim of this study was to explore the social factors influencing farmers' decision-making on the duration of antibiotic treatment of clinical mastitis. In total, 38 dairy farmers in the Netherlands (n=17) and Germany (n=21) were interviewed in a qualitative semi-structured way. Extended treatment was defined as any treatment longer than that given in label directions. Of the 38 farmers, 30 reported routine and 7 occasional extended antibiotic treatment. The interviewed farmers were sensitive toward social norms of other farmers and recognition for good stockmanship. Extended treatment is perceived as part of the social norm of "being a good farmer." The participants' perception was that mastitis is not treated "thoroughly" if clinical symptoms were still visible at the time of cessation of treatment, because it may persist or recur. As a result, treatment was frequently extended by repeating the initial label treatment. Farmers, specifically the more "cow-oriented" farmers, expressed insecurity on how to treat mastitis effectively. This insecurity made them more sensitive to comply with other farmers' injunctive ("what ought to be") and descriptive ("what is done") norms and the perceived veterinarians' informational norm that extended treatment is better, resulting in an approved social norm. Social approval reduces the insecurity of being perceived as a poor farmer; thus, extended treatment is emotionally rewarded. This social reward apparently outweighs the higher costs of more waste milk and more antibiotic usage. Perceived positive reference groups with whom the f

Mastitis in cattle is an infection of the mammary gland caused by infection, toxins and/or trauma. Currently, it is assumed that there is a correlation between higher amounts of residual milk and the incidence of clinical mastitis. The amount of residual milk can be exa - mined using different methods. Higher amounts of residual milk may result from an insufficient teat condition and individual detachment settings of milking units. To date, scientific literature has already discussed the relationship between high amounts of residual milk, undermilking and the occurrence of clinical mastitis. The present paper reviews the current status of knowledge regarding residual milk and risk of mastitis.

Between 2008 and 2010 in 106 German organic dairy farms a nationwide interdisciplinary intervention study was carried out in order to develop preventive animal health management strategies for mastitis and metabolic disorders, to validate this concept and to demonstrate its feasibility. During 4 visits per farm, health indicators and influencing factors such as housing, herd management, feeding and forage production were recorded. Following a thorough assessment, farm-individual evidence-based advice was provided by the project team. About two thirds of these farm-individual intervention measures were implemented within one year and their effectiveness in terms of health improvement was monitored for one respectively two years.

Monitoring udder health of a dairy herd has three functions: firstly describing the actual situation, secondly evaluating the efficiency of adopted improvement measures and treatments, thirdly to detect emerging problems as early as possible. Therefore, husbandry, feeding, and management of the cows haVeto be included in the surveillance. Risk-based monitoring of the udder health is characterized on the one hand by focussing on the currently relevant herd-specific risk factors. Consequently, it is a dynamic process. On the other hand, it is affected by a clearly structured approach to prevent a loss of control due to a lack of attention in any area. All essential decisions and actions are documented to be comprehensible and available for critical examination. This review explains the procedure to establish a risk-based monitoring program on dairy farms.

Objective: The teat canal of lactating dairy cattle is the first barrier against mastitis pathogens invading the teat cistern and the udder lumen. However, in several studies it could be shown that the teat skin and the teat canal epithelium are colonized by mainly staphylococci as well as by other pathogenic or facultative pathogenic micro-organisms. The aim of the study was to evaluate the pathogen pressure on the bovine mammary gland and to establish data on the prevalence of relevant micro-organisms. Material and methods: In 32 randomly selected German dairy farms the colonization of the teat skin and the teat canal by S. aureus (Baird Parker agar), Sc. uberis (modified Rambach agar according to Watts et al. [1993]), enterococci (kanamycin esculin azide agar) and coliforms (ChromoCult Coliform agar) was investigated by the wet/dry swab technique DIN 10113-1: 1997-07. Results: In total 84.5% of all 1358 investigated teat canals of clinically healthy cattle were colonized by at least one of the four pathogen groups. S. aureus was isolated from 72.2% of the teat canals. For S. aureus, Sc. uberis and E. coli maximum bacterial counts of > 10 6 cfu/swab and for other coli-form bacteria > 10 7 cfu/swab were detected. Correlations could be found between the bacterial counts on the teat skin and in the teat canal within the pathogen groups S. aureus, Sc. uberis, E. coli and other coliforms (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient r ≥ 0.30, p < 0.001) as well as between the environmental udder pathogens Sc. uberis and coliforms (r ≥ 0.25, p < 0.01). Conclusion and clinical relevance: The variation of the bacterial counts on teat epithelia could be an indicator that the microflora of the teat canal epithelium can be affected by management practices in dairy farms. The results of this study point out that under field conditions the efficiency of hygienic practices (husbandry, milking) can be assessed by sampling of the bo vine teat canal

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been identified as an emerging pathogen in livestock animals that is readily transferable to humans in contact with livestock. Moreover, MRSA is a mastitis pathogen in dairy cows that can be isolated from bulk tank milk. It was the objective of this study to characterize MRSA from bulk tank milk with respect to their spa- and SCCmec-type, their phenotypic antimicrobial resistance and resistance resp. virulence associated genes using broth microdilution and a microarray for S. aureus. Bulk tank milk samples (25 ml) were tested for MRSA using a 2 step selective enrichment protocol. Presumptive MRSA were confirmed using a triplex PCR targeted at identification of S. aureus and the mecA gene that encodes resistance to methicillin. A total of 36 isolates derived from monitoring programs and collected within other frameworks in 2009 and 2010 were included in the characterization. All isolates displayed spa-types assigned to the clonal complex CC398. Based on the epidemiological cut-off values for the interpretation of minimum inhibitory concentrations isolates were resistant to tetracycline (100%), clindamycin (58%) erythromycin (52%), quinupristin/dalfopristin (36%) and kanamycin (27%). Isolates did not carry genes associated with typical virulence factors for S. aureus such as the Panton-Valentine Leukocidin. However they did carry hemolysin genes. Results show that livestock associated MRSA of clonal complex CC398 does occur in German dairy herds and that the strains have similar properties as described for strains from pigs.

Objective: Especially in cases of clinical mastitis a rapid test for identification of responsible pathogens would be useful for choosing the appropriate treatment. The objective of the study was to determine whether two rapid tests are suitable to detect infections with coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, in cows with acute mastitis under field conditions. Material and methods: The evaluated tests were "Petrifilm™ Rapid Coliform" and "Petrifilm™ Staph Express Count System". A total of n = 107 double, quarter foremilk samples from dairy cows with clinical signs of acute mastitis was obtained aseptically. All samples were examined microbiologically by means of both conventional methods and using both Petrifilm™ tests. Results: Overall sen sitivity for the Petrifilm™ tests was 32%, overall specificity 90%, and the positive predictive value 24%. In contrast, conventional methods yielded positive results in only 18% of cases, meaning that with the petrifilm kits, 3.5 times more infections caused by coliforms could be detected. However, not all coliforms cultivated conventionally were also identified by the Petrifilm™ tests. Conclusion and clinical relevance: These unsatisfactory results may be due to flaws in the conventional culturing or contamination of samples. Therefore, the results of this field trial do not lead to a conclusive evaluation of this diagnostic device under field conditions, although the Petrifilm\; test for coliforms may already be recommended to identify infections caused by gram-negative microorganisms. Once caution is taken at sampling, this kit may lead to a basic decision regarding therapy.

Im Mittelpunkt des Projektes stand die Stoffwechsel- und Eutergesundheit von ökologisch gehaltenen Milchkühen im prä- und peripartalen Zeitraum sowie in den ersten 100 Laktationstagen und deren Beeinflussung durch die Futter- und Nährstoffversorgung und die Haltungsumwelt im umfassenden Sinn. In einer bundesweiten Feldstudie auf 106 ökologisch wirtschaftenden Milchviehbetrieben erfolgten Erhebungen mit dem Ziel einer Risikomodellierung zu Stoffwechsel- und Eutererkrankungen. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden die Produktionssysteme von der Pflanzenzusammensetzung im Grünland und im Ackerfutter über die Grobfutterproduktion, Futterqualität und Rationsgestaltung, Haltungsumwelt bis hin zur Tiergesundheit und Milchqualität analysiert, um hier einzelbetriebliche Risikoeinschätzungen vorzunehmen, Optimierungspotenziale aufzuzeigen und Handlungsempfehlungen abzuleiten, die anschließend betriebsindividuell implementiert wurden. Die Effektivität des so geschaffenen präventiv orientierten Tiergesundheitsmanagements wurde anhand der Entwicklung ausgewählter Kennzahlen der Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit geprüft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich mit dieser Vorgehensweise auch unter Praxisbedingungen die Tiergesundheitssituation signifikant verbes-sern lässt. Die Feldstudie wurde mit experimentellen Untersuchungen ergänzt, die sich speziellen Fragen der Analyse von nXP in Grasprodukten, des Kraftfuttereinsatzes, der Wahl der geeigneten Rasse, dem Infektionsgeschehen, der Nutzung von Haltungstechniken im Fütterungsmanagement und der Verbesserung der Grasnarbe widmeten. Die im Projekt generierten, aufgrund ihrer Ableitung aus der Praxis widerspruchsarmen Erkenntnisse wurden über vielfältige Formen des Wissenstransfers an die Akteure in der Ökologischen Milchviehhaltung vermittelt. Ein Merkblatt zur Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit bei Biomilchkühen und ein modular aufgebautes Wissenstransferkonzept wurden erarbeitet, um die Projektergebnisse nachhaltig nutzen zu können.

Kernziel des im Rahmen des Bundesprogramms Ökologischer Landbau initiierten Forschungsvorhabens „Gesundheit und Leistungsfähigkeit von Milchkühen im ökologischen Landbau interdisziplinär betrachtet“ (FKZ 07OE012 - 07OE022) ist - neben der Abschätzung des Risikos für Stoffwechselstörungen und Eutererkrankungen - die Entwicklung eines praxistauglichen, präventiv orientierten Tiergesundheitsmanagements für die Praxis der ökologischen Milchviehhaltung. Basierend auf einer Interventionsstudie auf 106 repräsentativ ausgewählten Milchviehbetrieben soll dieses Managementkonzept in einer zweijährigen Praxisphase validiert und auf seine Praxistauglichkeit überprüft werden. Als Grundlage für die Identifikation einzelbetrieblicher Interventionsmaßnahmen dienen zentrale Indikatoren der Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit, deren Abgleich mit im Vorfeld definierten Zielgrößen sowie Informationen zur Haltungsumwelt und zum Herdenmanagement. Das entwickelte Konzept soll eine einzelbetriebliche Einschätzung des Gesundheitsstatus der Milchviehherde bezüglich der Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit ermöglichen, auf deren Basis Handlungsempfehlungen zur nachhaltigen Verbesserung der Milchviehgesundheit abgeleitet werden können. Die Projektbetriebe setzten zwei Drittel der empfohlenen Maßnahmen um; eine abschließende Effektivitätskontrolle in Bezug auf die Verbesserung der Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit auf den Betrieben auf Basis der Daten des letzten Projektjahres steht noch aus.

Current literature contains references showing a connection between teat condition and udder-health variables. Unfortunately, for acute teat condition problems it is difficult to prove a causal chain as mastitis is dependent on a number of factors and causes. Even if the other influences on the teat condition could not be excluded within these field studies, which are predominantly represented in this article, it appears logical that the disturbance of the microcirculation has a negative influence on immune cell recruitment, decelerates teat canal closure and increases the amount of strip milk in the quarter after milking. Longitudinal studies are more significant than cross-sectional studies in terms of influencing variables and are therefore more reliable. Quarters of cows with teats classified as displaying severe hyperkeratosis have an increased risk of mastitis. These teats are more difficult to clean, promote colonization by bacteria and negatively influence the ability of the teat canal to close after milking. This paper attempts to describe the state of knowledge on the impact of a disturbed integrity of the teat canal mucosa, the teat tissue and the teat skin on the development of mastitis.

Objective: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of animal health on the economical success in organic dairy farms. Material and methods: Between August 2002 and September 2003, 25 corresponding dairy farms in Lower Saxony were visited regularly and data regarding economy and animal health were gathered. Results: lhe economic benefit is closely associated with the animals' individual yields. Higher profit contributions were related to a higher percentage of cows with somatic cell count of less than 100000 cells per milliliter milk. On the other hand, a higher rate of documented clinical mastitis cases and a higher frequency of hypocalcaemic paresis cases could be detected. Basically, a relation between animal health and profit in organic dairy farms was observed. However, the present survey also showed that increased milk yields may lead not only to profit optimization but also a higher incidence of diseases. Conclusion: An excellent animal health status is not absolutely combined with high economic benefits of organic dairy farms. For the simultaneous implementation of both objectives an appreciation of animal health, independent from the individual cow milk yield, is necessary. Clinical relevance: The results show that in organic farms with a high milk yield level an increased incidence of diseases can occur.

The proportion of mastitis infections in dairy cattle caused by environmental pathogens has increased in recent years. The number of microorganisms in bedding materials affects the incidence of udder infections. The objective of this study was to describe a diagnostic method suitable for the evaluation of environmental mastitis risk due to microbiological bedding material quality, and how this method can be interpreted or constructed. Material and methods: A sample of 1 g of fresh bedding material (straw: n = 406; wood shavings: n = 281) was mixed with water in order to create a homogenized blend of bedding material that was used for a dilution series according to German law standard (§64 LFGB, method: L00.00 54). Subsequently, the total aerobic bacterial count as well as the bacterial counts of Escherichia coli, coliform bacteria and aesculin-positive streptococci were determined using pour or spread plate techniques (§64 LFGB L01.00-57) on different (selective) agar media. The determination and calculation of bacterial counts were carried out after a defined incubation time. Results: In common bedding materials, there is a huge variability of the bacterial count. While hygienically perfect bedding materials regularly show total aerobic bacterial counts of < 10 6 barely exhibit any coliforms or aesculin-positive streptococci, bacterial count thresholds can be exceeded in optically perfect fresh organic bedding materials even before first use. These materials are therefore regarded as high risk. Conclusion and clinical relevance: The microbiological investigation of fresh bedding materials provided evidence for the evaluation of environmental mastitis risk. Naturally, the contamination of the bedding areas with faeces, urine and milk, along with frequency of changing the material, care requirements and barn climate are also important considerations to take into account for the reduction of the bacterial counts in the bedding area.

In order to reassess whether applying simple microbiological methods which are in step with actual practice are able to improve the identification rates of microorganisms from clinically mastitic quarters, corresponding samples previously cultured unsuccessfully (applying the recommendations of the German Society of Veterinary Medicine [DVG]) were subjected to additional culturing methods. After repeating the routine methods in n = 261 quarter milk samples with an inoculum of 0.01 mL on esculin blood agar (then culturally-negative in n = 193 cases), samples were tested for inhibitory substances and inoculum was increased to 0.1 mL. Coliforms were detected using the rapid methods. In the next step, sample sediments and the sediment after freezing were cultured. Once the samples had been tested for endotoxins, specific culture media for mycoplasms were employed. Coagulase-negative staphylococci could be isolated from 27.5% of the remaining samples, E. coli and other coliforms in 24.4%, streptococci and enterococci in 6.7%, coryneforms in 3.6% and Staphylococcus aureus in 1.6%. In 7.3% of cases, two pathogens were detected, and 17.1% of samples yielded inhibitory substances, 3.6% lipopolysaccharides. By combining different methods for analysis and moreover by increasing the volume of the inoculum, positive results became feasible where routine methods failed to produce them.

The bovine teat condition is not only affected by milking and housing conditions, but also by technical parameters of both the milking machine and the milking process. Because of the association between insufficient teat condition and deterioration of the udder health, the technical parameters should be adjusted in such a way as to minimize milk- ing-related deterioration of the teat condition. It is difficult to improve the teat condition by an optimised adjustment of technical milking parameters due to complex interactions among the variables. The present paper shows the current status of knowledge by means of a literature overview.

When periods with many cases of clinical mastitis occur on dairy farms, veterinary practitioners are not only expected to treat these cases successfully, but also to provide managementrelated recommendations that reduce the mastitis incidence on a sustained basis. In order to formulate effective recommendations for herd health management, the problem must be analysed systematically. Some fundamental questions must be answered accordingly, e.g. the kind of pathogens involved and whether the acute clinical cases are due to new infections resp. diseases, or have occurred because many subclinical cases have become clinical. With this data at hand, the process of finding solutions will become much easier. Reducing the risks recognized as being most significant for the development of the problem will ensure the best possible reduction of new infections and clinical exacerbations.

Prevention of heifer mastitis is a key element in preventing mastitis. Since pathogenesis of heifer mastitis is not fully understood yet, combating it is arduous. The goal of this study was to examine whether the premature loss of the keratin plug of the teat canal represents an important risk factor for the development of heifer mastitis. 84 dairy heifers (German Holstein) from six high-yielding dairy herds in Northern Germany were examined between March 2005 and June 2006. Each quarter was examined clinically at least three times before calving. If the teat canal of a quarter was open, secretion samples were collected for bacteriological analysis. After calving, four quarter samples were collected during the first lactation. A rapid increase of the proportion of open teat canals was detected in the preparturition period. No teat canals were open till 80 days before parturition, while 60% of the teat canals were open at 60 days before parturition. A time-scheduled infection pattern was observed: during the days 90-61, 60-31, and 30-0 before calving, skin inhabitants (coagulase-negative staphylococci, coryneform bacteria), cow-related, and environment-related microorganisms prevailed, respectively. A total of 77% of intramammary infections encountered at parturition had established previously. No significant association between the duration of open teat canals before calving and the udder health post partum was found. However, the incidence of clinical mastitis during first lactation was influenced largely by the duration of infection ante partum and the mastitis pathogen involved. This study shows that a high proportion of teat canals already opens several months before calving and that opening of the teat canal before calving is an important factor in the aetiology of heifer mastitis.