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SUMMARYIn Greece the public health surveillance for most infectious diseases, including shigellosis, is not well developed. However, four waterborne outbreaks of shigellosis have been recorded in Greece in the last three decades, in different areas of the country, under different environmental and socioeconomic conditions. This study presents the epidemiological characteristics of these four outbreaks in order to examine common points and differences and to investigate their possible association with environmental and socioeconomic conditions. All four outbreaks were caused by Shigella sonnei and related to drinking water. Epidemic curves, distribution of cases by age and gender, hospitalization rates, environmental conditions and laboratory results were compared. The outbreaks seemed to correspond to two different ‘models’ presenting two characteristic types of epidemic waves related to specific environmental conditions. The attack rates for the general population varied from about 9 to 13% and were similar for both sexes. Children were affected mostly. In these outbreaks there was a strong suspicion of contamination of the water distribution system from the sewage network, highlighting the importance of environmental health control measures.

Intrinsically disordered protein (IDP)-mediated interactions are often characterized by low affinity but high specificity. These traits are essential in signaling and regulation that require reversibility. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) exploit this situation by commandeering host cytoskeletal signaling to stimulate actin assembly beneath bound bacteria, generating ‘pedestals’ that promote intestinal colonization. EHEC translocates into the host cell two proteins, EspFU and Tir, which form a complex with the host protein IRTKS. The interaction of this complex with N-WASP triggers localized actin polymerization. We show that EspFU is an IDP that contains a transiently α-helical N-terminus and dynamic C-terminus. Our structure shows that single EspFU repeat is capable of forming a high-affinity trimolecular complex with N-WASP and IRTKS. We demonstrate that bacterial and cellular ligands interact with IRTKS SH3 in a similar fashion but the bacterial protein has evolved to outcompete cellular targets by utilizing a tryptophan switch that offers superior binding affinity enabling EHEC-induced pedestal formation.

Biochemistry & Pharmacology: Open Access

How can pathogen proteins functionally hijack their hosts? In this issue of Structure, Aitio et al. reveal that the process involves coordinated intrinsic disorder in a short pathogen sequence that elegantly commandeers the tightly regulated cytoskeletal signaling in the host. Structure

The development of treatments to reduce bacterial numbers on poultry carcasses is important for the overall hygienic quality of birds. The important washing effect of the immersion chilling procedure is discussed. Systematic monitoring of fecal bacterial indicators as well as some classic pathogens was performed at selected critical points in a water chiller ecosystem. Clostridium perfringens, fecal coliforms, Enterococcus sp., and Streptococcus sp. were found in all water chiller samples. The temperature of the chiller ecosystem varied according to location: Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. were found at 16 degrees C, compared with the 4 degrees C location, where these species were found in lower numbers. Moreover, the psychrotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas was found only at this last location. The temperature of the water during the immersion chilling procedure was unfavorable for the growth of Campylobacter sp., whose presence was always strictly associated with a pH close to 6. Spore forms of C. perfringens were persistent in all locations and seemed to be a reliable indicator of contamination of the water chiller ecosystem.

Atrazine solutions (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 microg/L) inoculated with Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis under natural conditions significantly increased (por = 0.05) the population levels of both test bacteria; it indicates the ability of bacterial cells to degrade atrazine and to use the original compound or its degradation products as nutrient(s). In some cases, alterations in the morphology of the colonies were also observed on selective solid media. Biochemical differentiation was also found and, on the other hand, a loss of culturability was recorded; this suggests that bacteria have entered in a viable but nonculturable state. A re-appearance of the colonies occurred after inoculation on tryptone-soy agar with atrazine.

In order to investigate the effects of the herbicide trifluralin on the indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, these bacteria were inoculated into four different concentrations of trifluralin (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 ug/L). The bacterial growth was monitored turbidimetrically, followed by membrane filtration where membranes were placed on selective media agar. A non-typical morphology of colonies together with loss of culturability was recorded in all cases. Furthermore, differentiation in the strains’ biochemical profiles was noted. E. coli was identified as Hafnia alvei and Ent. faecalis as Enterococcus faecium or Enterococcus avium. The current study suggests that the use of these two indicator bacteria in routine microbiological analysis of water might be questioned since trifluralin diluted to contaminated water has the potential to promote their growth and change their morphological and biochemical characteristics. Key words: Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, indicator bacteria, pollution, trifluralin, water