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Abstract The urgency to restore landscapes to counteract deforestation, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss has resulted in a global commitment to landscape restoration. Many frameworks and tools have emerged for the design and implementation of restoration activities. The frameworks tend to focus on selected dimensions of sustainability, with the majority focusing on the ecological. Current frameworks miss a balanced assessment of (planned) interventions taking into account also the social dimension relating to participation and ownership as well as improvement of livelihoods. The objective of this review is to assess current frameworks for identification of strength and weaknesses and to derive an integrated Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) assessment framework model that shall help overcome current limitations. Applying systematic literature review, a total of 22 frameworks are selected and analyzed in-depth applying qualitative content analysis. Our review finds that frameworks vary with respect to their focus and restoration objectives. They also differ in relation to spatial and temporal scale, degree of stakeholder participation, consideration of ecological and social dimensions, monitoring and evaluation approaches, as well as provisions for exit strategies. Findings are summarized in form of an integrated FLR assessment framework, comprising six interlinked components: stakeholder participation, customization, time and scale of application, social-ecological balance, monitoring, evaluation and learning, and exit strategy. The proposed framework facilitates design and implementation of context specific interventions, balancing the nexus of social and ecological dimensions of FLR and acknowledges the need to also include reflection on learnings and planning of an exit strategy for long-term success. Graphical Abstract

Cropland expansion, driven by increasing population pressure and economic demands, is a major contributor to accelerating deforestation. While most studies have focused on the spatial and temporal analysis of landscape changes using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing, there has been less emphasis on the socioeconomic analysis of these changes. Understanding the socioeconomic dynamics of affected areas is essential for implementing practical corrective actions. We apply linear programming and welfare maximization theory to examine how population growth impacts competition between agriculture and forest land use, per capita cash income, and subsistence consumption from privately owned farms. Focusing on the Tchamba district in Togo, we aim to determine the sustainability of farming systems to better inform the ongoing Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) program. The findings show that the current agricultural systems can support the population growth rate (2.68% per year in the Tchamba district) and per capita income until at least 2063. However, the current agricultural systems cannot support one human generation, which is estimated to be 65 years. These results underscore the need to enhance farming technologies, boost land productivity, diversify income sources to meet the rising food demand and curb forest clearing for farmland expansion. By integrating these insights into the FLR program, this research highlights the importance of a comprehensive policy framework that supports sustainable agricultural practices, community engagement, enforcement of regulations, and economic diversification. This approach will guide restoration efforts and strengthen the resilience and productivity of agricultural systems under population and income pressures.

One possible solution for regaining ecological functionality and enhancing human well-being in deforested and degraded landscapes is Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR). Togo has set a goal to restore 1.4 million hectares of lands by 2030. Despite the national commitment to FLR, no significant progress has been made and drivers that impact FLR adoption remain poorly understood. Thus, it is crucial to enhance knowledge on drivers influencing the adoption of FLR to facilitate its implementation while also providing recommendations for policy and practice. Surveying 494 Togolese smallholder farmers, this study focuses on socio-economic, biophysical, geographical, and institutional aspects of FLR as well as farmers’ perceptions. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression are employed to provide a model of the drivers affecting FLR in Togo. The results reveal that 43.62% of smallholder farmers adopt FLR practices in the study areas. FLR practices linked to agricultural land restoration, such as improved fallow and crop rotation system (33.40%) and agroforestry (32.19%), are the most widely adopted, followed by reforestation (13.36%), community forest creation (8.7%), commercial forest plantation (7.29%), and sacred forest enrichment (2.83%). Results also indicate that smallholder farmers in cooperatives and involved in restoration activities have a higher awareness of the importance of restoration and willingness to adopt practices. Similar observations are made for farmers living in a zone with high exposure to FLR activities. Secure property rights also support adopting FLR practices. Further, the services of local technicians or facilitators create favorable conditions that encourage smallholders to implement FLR practices. Perception of restoration practices and need, motivation for maintaining restoration practices, and relevance for food security greatly impact smallholder farmer adoption. These results suggest that FLR practices can be increased through training and access to seedlings, supporting reforestation and community forest creation by incentivizing smallholder participation through subsidies or technical assistance, clarifying and strengthening smallholders’ land rights, and deploying more local technicians.