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Primate social organizations, or grouping patterns, vary significantly across species. Behavioral strategies that allow for flexibility in grouping patterns offer a means to reduce the costs of group living. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have a fission‐fusion social system in which temporary subgroups ("parties") change in composition because of local socio‐ecological conditions. Notably, western chimpanzees (P. t. verus) are described as showing a higher degree of bisexual bonding and association than eastern chimpanzees, and eastern female chimpanzees (P. t. schweinfurthii) are thought to be more solitary than western female chimpanzees. However, reported comparisons in sociality currently depend on a small number of study groups, particularly in western chimpanzees, and variation in methods. The inclusion of additional communities and direct comparison using the same methods are essential to assess whether reported subspecies differences in sociality hold in this behaviorally heterogeneous species. We explored whether sociality differs between two communities of chimpanzees using the same motion‐triggered camera technology and definitions of social measures. We compare party size and composition (party type, sex ratio) between the western Gahtoy community in the Nimba Mountains (Guinea) and the eastern Waibira community in the Budongo Forest (Uganda). Once potential competition for resources such as food and mating opportunities were controlled for, subspecies did not substantially influence the number of individuals in a party. We found a higher sex‐ratio, indicating more males in a party, in Waibira; this pattern was driven by a greater likelihood in Gahtoy to be in all‐female parties. This finding is the opposite of what was expected for eastern chimpanzees, where female‐only parties are predicted to be more common. Our results highlight the flexibility in chimpanzee sociality, and caution against subspecies level generalizations. Research highlights: Party size in western and eastern chimpanzees did not differ between our two study communities suggesting that the number of individuals in a party is shaped by similar socio‐ecological pressures.In our sample, eastern chimpanzees were found to have more males in a party compared to western chimpanzees, contrary to the expectation of more female‐only parties in eastern compared to western chimpanzees.Our findings highlight the flexibility in chimpanzee grouping patterns and caution against subspecies level generalizations from limited data points and/or heterogeneous methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are Critically Endangered and Guinea is a key stronghold for this subspecies. However, Guinea is also rich in minerals with some of the highest‐grade iron‐ore deposits in the world. Specifically, the Nimba Mountains, home to western chimpanzees, is one of the sites under consideration for mining activities. To assess the impact of mining activities in the area, we used non‐invasive genetic sampling to estimate chimpanzee population size, sex ratio, community composition, and range boundaries on the western flank of the massif. The level of genetic diversity and affinity between communities was estimated and recommendations for future genetic censusing provided. Between 2003 and 2018, we collected 999 fecal samples of which 663 were analyzed using a panel of 26 microsatellites. We identified a minimum of 136 chimpanzees in four communities, with evidence of migratory events, a high level of shared ancestry and genetic diversity. We assessed sampling intensities and capture rates for each community. Saturation was reached in two communities with sampling between 3.2 and 4.3 times the estimated number of chimpanzees. Our findings highlight the utility of genetic censusing for temporal monitoring of ape abundance, as well as capturing migratory events and gauging genetic diversity and population viability over time. We recommend genetic sampling, combined with camera trapping, for use in future Environmental and Social Impact Assessments, as these methods can yield robust baselines for implementing the mitigation hierarchy, future biomonitoring and conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An enduring question in the study of human evolution is why tool use evolved. A new study has found that stone tools improve diet quality in wild capuchin monkeys. Tools may have similarly increased the nutritional security in ancestral hominins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significance of aquatic food resources for hominins is poorly understood, despite evidence of consumption as early as 1.95 million years ago (Ma). Here we present the first evidence of a non-human ape habitually catching and consuming aquatic crabs. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the rainforest of the Nimba Mountains (Guinea) consumed freshwater crabs year-round, irrespective of rainfall or ripe fruit availability. Parties of females and offspring fished for crabs more than predicted and for longer durations than adult males. Across months, crab-fishing was negatively correlated with ant-dipping, suggesting a similar nutritional role. These findings contribute to our understanding of aquatic faunivory among hominins. First, aquatic faunivory can occur in closed forests in addition to open wetlands. Second, aquatic fauna could have been a staple part of some hominin diets, rather than merely a fallback food. Third, the habitual consumption of aquatic fauna could have been especially important for females and their immature offspring. In addition to providing small amounts of essential fatty acids, crabs might also be eaten for their micronutrients such as sodium and calcium, especially by females and young individuals who may have limited access to meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary High-arm grooming is a form of chimpanzee grooming in which two individuals mutually groom while each raising one arm. Palm-to-palm clasping (PPC) is a distinct style of high-arm grooming in which the grooming partners clasp each other’s raised palms. In wild communities, samples of at least 100 observed dyads grooming with raised hands showed PPC frequencies varying from <5% (M group, Mahale) to >30% dyads grooming (Kanyawara, Kibale), and in a large free-ranging sanctuary group, the frequency reached >80% dyads (group 1, Chimfunshi) [ 1, 2 ]. Because between-community differences in frequency of PPC apparently result from social learning, are stable across generations, and last for at least 9 years, they are thought to be cultural, but the mechanism of transmission is unknown [ 2 ]. Here, we examine factors responsible for individual variation in PPC frequency within a single wild community. We found that in the Kanyawara community (Kibale, Uganda), adults of both sexes varied widely in their PPC frequency (from <10% to >50%) and did not converge on a central group tendency. However, frequencies of PPC were highly consistent within matrilines, indicating that individuals maintained lifelong fidelity to the grooming style of their mothers. Matrilineal inheritance of socially learned behaviors has previously been reported for tool use in chimpanzees [ 3 ] and in the vocal and feeding behavior of cetaceans [ 4, 5 ]. Our evidence indicates that matrilineal inheritance can be sufficiently strong in nonhuman primates to account for long-term differences in community traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex differences in immatures predict behavioural differences in adulthood in many mammal species. Because most studies have focused on sex differences in social interactions, little is known about possible sex differences in ‘preparation’ for adult life with regards to tool use skills. We investigated sex and age differences in object manipulation in immature apes. Chimpanzees use a variety of tools across numerous contexts, whereas bonobos use few tools and none in foraging. In both species, a female bias in adult tool use has been reported. We studied object manipulation in immature chimpanzees at Kalinzu (Uganda) and bonobos at Wamba (Democratic Republic of Congo). We tested predictions of the ‘preparation for tool use’ hypothesis. We confirmed that chimpanzees showed higher rates and more diverse types of object manipulation than bonobos. Against expectation, male chimpanzees showed higher object manipulation rates than females, whereas in bonobos no sex difference was found. However, object manipulation by male chimpanzees was play-dominated, whereas manipulation types of female chimpanzees were more diverse (e.g., bite, break, carry). Manipulation by young immatures of both species was similarly dominated by play, but only in chimpanzees did it become more diverse with age. Moreover, in chimpanzees, object types became more tool-like (i.e., sticks) with age, further suggesting preparation for tool use in adulthood. The male bias in object manipulation in immature chimpanzees, along with the late onset of tool-like object manipulation, indicates that not all (early) object manipulation (i.e., object play) in immatures prepares for subsistence tool use. Instead, given the similarity with gender differences in human children, object play may also function in motor skill practice for male-specific behaviours (e.g., dominance displays). In conclusion, even though immature behaviours almost certainly reflect preparation for adult roles, more detailed future work is needed to disentangle possible functions of object manipulation during development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chimpanzees are renowned for their use of foraging tools in harvesting social insects and some populations use tools to prey on aggressive army ants ( Dorylus spp.). Tool use in army ant predation varies across chimpanzee study sites with differences in tool length, harvesting technique, and army ant species targeted. However, surprisingly little is known about the detailed ecology of army ant predation. We studied army ant predation by chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes verus) at the Seringbara study site in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea (West Africa), over 10 years (2003-2013). We investigated chimpanzee selectivity with regards to army ant prey species. We assessed the temporal variation in army ant-feeding and examined whether army ant predation was related to rainfall or ripe fruit availability. Moreover, we examined whether chimpanzees showed selectivity regarding plant species used for tool manufacture, as well as the relationship between tool species preference and tool collection distance. Lastly, we measured tool properties and investigated the use of tool sets and composite tools in army ant predation. Seringbara chimpanzees preyed on one army ant species ( D. nigricans) more often than expected based on encounter rates, which may be explained by the overlap in altitudinal distribution between chimpanzees and D. nigricans. Army ant predation was not related to rainfall or fruit availability. Chimpanzees were selective in their choice of tool materials and collected their preferred tool species ( Alchornea hirtella) from greater distances than they did other species. Lastly, Seringbara chimpanzees used both tool sets and composite tools (tree perch) in army ant predation. Tool types (dig vs. dip) differed in width and strength, but not length. Tool composites were found at 40% of ant-feeding sites. Our study sheds new light on the ecology of army ant predation and provides novel insights into chimpanzee selection of army ant prey and tool species. Am. J. Primatol. 77:319-329, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographical variation in behaviour may be best explained in terms of culture if ecological and genetic explanations can be excluded. However, ecological conditions and genetic predispositions may in turn also affect cultural processes. We examined the influence of environmental factors on foraging tool use among chimpanzees at the Seringbara study site in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea, where nut cracking and termite fishing are absent, but ant dipping is present. We tested two ecological hypotheses to explain foraging tool use prevalence. The opportunity hypothesis states that encounter rates with nuts, insects or tools explain tool use patterns. We measured the density and distribution of nut trees, nuts, army ants, termites and potential tools in relation to the chimpanzees'' ranging patterns. The necessity hypothesis states that tool use is a response to scarcity of preferred foods (i.e. ripe fruit). We measured the temporal availability of nuts, army ants and termites in relation to preferred food sources. Our findings support the opportunity hypothesis: nut trees and Macrotermes mounds were rare and peripheral to the chimpanzees'' range, whereas army ants were abundant and widespread. The necessity hypothesis did not explain tool-assisted insectivory, as both army ants and termites were available during ripe fruit scarcity, yet neither ant dipping nor termite fishing functioned as fallback strategies. Nuts were absent at times of fruit scarcity and were not available as fallback foods. Our findings highlight the importance of considering environmental conditions in explaining foraging tool use by wild chimpanzees and emphasize the interplay between environment and culture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Nest-building is a great ape universal and arboreal nesting in chimpanzees and bonobos suggests that the common ancestor of Pan and Homo also nested in trees. It has been proposed that arboreal nest-building remained the prevailing pattern until Homo erectus, a fully terrestrial biped, emerged. We investigated the unusual occurrence of ground-nesting in chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes), which may inform on factors influencing the tree-to-ground sleep transition in the hominin lineage. We used a novel genetic approach to examine ground-nesting in unhabituated chimpanzees at Seringbara in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea. Previous research showed that ground-nesting at Seringbara was not ecologically determined. Here, we tested a possible mate-guarding function of ground-nesting by analyzing DNA from shed hairs collected from ground nests and tree nests found in close proximity. We examined whether or not ground-nesting was a group-level behavioral pattern and whether or not it occurred in more than one community. We used multiple genetic markers to identify sex and to examine variation in mitochondrial DNA control region (HV1, HV2) sequences. Ground-nesting was a male-biased behavior and males constructed more elaborate ('night') nests than simple ('day') nests on the ground. The mate-guarding hypothesis was not supported, as ground and associated tree nests were built either by maternally-related males or possibly by the same individuals. Ground-nesting was widespread and likely habitual in two communities. We suggest that terrestrial nest-building may have already occurred in arboreally-adapted early hominins before the emergence of H. erectus. Am J Phys Anthropol 148:351-361, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of nests (or beds) for sleeping is a chimpanzee universal, yet little is known about the adaptive function of nest-building. We present an in-depth study of nest-building by unhabituated chimpanzees at the Seringbara study site in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea, West Africa. We recorded 1520 chimpanzee nests over 28 mo during three study periods between 2003 and 2008. We investigated where chimpanzees built their nests, both across the home range and in nest trees, and assessed how altitude and habitat type affected nest site selectivity. We examined whether or not chimpanzees were selective in nest tree choice regarding physical tree characteristics and tree species and assessed plant species preference for both tree- and ground-nesting. We tested three, nonmutually exclusive, hypotheses for the function of arboreal nest-building. We assessed whether selectivity for nest tree characteristics reflected an antipredator strategy, examined whether nesting patterns (both arboreal and terrestrial) and nesting height were influenced by variation in climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, wind), and measured mosquito densities at ground level and in trees at 10 m and related mosquito densities to nesting patterns. Chimpanzees preferred to nest above 1000 m and nested mainly in primary forest. They preferred relatively large trees with a low first branch, dense canopy, and small leaves and showed preference for particular tree species, which was stable across years, whereas plant choice for ground-nesting was largely based on plant availability. We found no support for the antipredation hypothesis, nor did mosquito densities explain arboreal nest-building. The thermoregulation hypothesis was supported, as both nesting patterns and nest-height variation across seasons reflected a humidity-avoidance strategy. Chimpanzees nested higher in trees and at higher altitudes in the wet season. In sum, chimpanzees were selective in their choice of nest sites, locations, and materials, and tree-nesting patterns at Seringbara were best explained by a thermoregulation strategy of humidity avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) of the Nimba Mountains, Guinea, West Africa, commonly make both elaborate (“night”) and simple (“day”) nests on the ground. In this study we investigated which factors might influence ground-nesting in this population, and tested two ecological hypotheses: 1) climatic conditions, such as high wind speeds at high altitudes, may deter chimpanzees from nesting in trees; and 2) a lack of appropriate arboreal nesting opportunities may drive the chimpanzees to nest on the ground. In addition to testing these two hypotheses, we explored whether ground-nesting is a sex-linked behavior. Data were collected monthly between August 2003 and May 2004 along transects and ad libitum. To identify the sex of ground-nesting individuals, we used DNA extracted from hair samples. The results showed that the occurrence and distribution of ground nests were not affected by climatic conditions or a lack of appropriate nest trees. Support was found for the notion that ground-nesting is a sex-linked behavior, as males were responsible for building all of the elaborate ground nests and most of the simple ground nests sampled. Elaborate ground nests occurred mostly in nest groups associated with tree nests, whereas simple ground nests usually occurred without tree nests in their vicinity. These results suggest that ground-nesting may be socially, rather than ecologically, determined. Am. J. Primatol. 69:1–13, 2007. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconciliation is a conflict resolution mechanism that is common to many gregarious species with individualized societies. Reconciliation repairs the damaged relationship between the opponents and decreases postconflict (PC) anxiety. The “integrated hypothesis” links the quality of the opponents' relationship to PC anxiety, since it proposes that conflicts among partners with high relationship quality will yield high levels of PC anxiety, which in turn will lead to an increased likelihood of reconciliation. We tested the integrated hypothesis in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the Arnhem Zoo, The Netherlands. We applied the standard PC/matched control (MC) method. Our results mostly support the integrated hypothesis, in that more valuable and compatible partners (i.e., males and frequent groomers) reconciled more often than less valuable and weakly compatible partners (i.e., females and infrequent groomers). In addition, PC anxiety was higher after conflicts among males than among females. Emotional arousal thus appears to be a mediator facilitating reconciliation. However, in contrast to the predictions derived from the integrated hypothesis, PC anxiety appeared only in aggressees, and not in aggressors, of conflicts. This suggests that while relationship quality determines PC anxiety, it is dependent on the role of the participants in the conflict. Am J Primatol 69:1–15, 2007. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural variation has been identified in a growing number of animal species ranging from primates to cetaceans. The principal method used to establish the presence of culture in wild populations is the method of exclusion. This method is problematic, since it cannot rule out the influence of genetics and ecology in geographically distant populations. A new approach to the study of culture compares neighbouring groups belonging to the same population. We applied this new approach by comparing ant-dipping tool length between two neighbouring communities of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. Ant-dipping tool length varies across chimpanzee study sites in relation to army ant species (Dorylus spp.) and dipping location (nest vs. trail). We compared the availability of army ant species and dipping tool length between the two communities. M-group tools were significantly longer than S-group tools, despite identical army ant target species availabilities. Moreover, tool length in S-group was shorter than at all other sites where chimpanzees prey on epigaeic ants at nests. Considering the lack of ecological differences between the two communities, the tool length difference appears to be cultural. Our findings highlight how cultural knowledge can generate small-scale cultural diversification in neighbouring chimpanzee communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tool use in nonhuman apes can help identify the conditions that drove the extraordinary expansion of hominin technology. Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Whereas chimpanzees are renowned for their tool use, bonobos use few tools and none in foraging. We investigated whether extrinsic (ecological and social opportunities) or intrinsic (predispositions) differences explain this contrast by comparing chimpanzees at Kalinzu (Uganda) and bonobos at Wamba (DRC). We assessed ecological opportunities based on availability of resources requiring tool use. We examined potential opportunities for social learning in immature apes. Lastly, we investigated predispositions by measuring object manipulation and object play. Extrinsic opportunities did not explain the tool use difference, whereas intrinsic predispositions did. Chimpanzees manipulated and played more with objects than bonobos, despite similar levels of solitary and social play. Selection for increased intrinsic motivation to manipulate objects likely also played an important role in the evolution of hominin tool use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) harbor rich assemblages of malaria parasites, including three species closely related to P. falciparum (sub-genus Laverania), the most malignant human malaria parasite. Here, we characterize the ecology and epidemiology of malaria infection in wild chimpanzee reservoirs. We used molecular assays to screen chimpanzee fecal samples, collected longitudinally and cross-sectionally from wild populations, for malaria parasite mitochondrial DNA. We found that chimpanzee malaria parasitism has an early age of onset and varies seasonally in prevalence. A subset of samples revealed Hepatocystis mitochondrial DNA, with phylogenetic analyses suggesting that Hepatocystis appears to cross species barriers more easily than Laverania. Longitudinal and cross-sectional sampling independently support the hypothesis that mean ambient temperature drives spatiotemporal variation in chimpanzee Laverania infection. Infection probability peaked at ~24.5 °C, consistent with the empirical transmission optimum of P. falciparum in humans. Forest cover was also positively correlated with spatial variation in Laverania prevalence, consistent with the observation that forest-dwelling Anophelines are the primary vectors. Extrapolating these relationships across equatorial Africa, we map spatiotemporal variation in the suitability of chimpanzee habitat for Laverania transmission, offering a hypothetical baseline indicator of human exposure risk. Chimpanzees are known to suffer from malaria parasitism. Here, the prevalence and epidemiology of several malaria parasites is examined in a wild chimpanzee population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The drivers of divergent scleral morphologies in primates are currently unclear, though white sclerae are often assumed to underlie human hyper-cooperative behaviours. Humans are unusual in possessing depigmented sclerae whereas many other extant primates, including the closely-related chimpanzee, possess dark scleral pigment. Here, we use phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) analyses with previously generated species-level scores of proactive prosociality, social tolerance (both n = 15 primate species), and conspecific lethal aggression (n = 108 primate species) to provide the first quantitative, comparative test of three existing hypotheses. The 'self-domestication' and 'cooperative eye' explanations predict white sclerae to be associated with cooperative, rather than competitive, environments. The 'gaze camouflage' hypothesis predicts that dark scleral pigment functions as gaze direction camouflage in competitive social environments. Notably, the experimental evidence that non-human primates draw social information from conspecific eye movements is unclear, with the latter two hypotheses having recently been challenged. Here, we show that white sclerae in primates are associated with increased cooperative behaviours whereas dark sclerae are associated with reduced cooperative behaviours and increased conspecific lethal violence. These results are consistent with all three hypotheses of scleral evolution, suggesting that primate scleral morphologies evolve in relation to variation in social environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chimpanzees live in fission‐fusion social organizations, which means that party size, composition, and spatial distribution are constantly in flux. Moreover, chimpanzees use a remarkably extensive repertoire of vocal and nonvocal forms of communication, thought to help convey information in such a socially and spatially dynamic setting. One proposed form of nonvocal communication in chimpanzees is buttress drumming, in which an individual hits a tree buttress with its hands and/or feet, thereby producing a low‐frequency acoustic signal. It is often presumed that this behavior functions to communicate over long distances and is, therefore, goal‐oriented. If so, we would expect chimpanzees to exhibit selectivity in the choice of trees and buttresses used in buttress drumming. Selectivity is a key attribute of many other goal‐directed chimpanzee behaviors, such as nut‐cracking and ant dipping. Here, we investigate whether chimpanzees at the Seringbara study site in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea, West Africa, show selectivity in their buttress drumming behavior. Our results indicate that Seringbara chimpanzees are more likely to use larger trees and select buttresses that are thinner and have a greater surface area. These findings imply that tree buttress drumming is not a random act, but rather goal‐oriented and requires knowledge of suitable trees and buttresses. Our results also point to long‐distance communication as a probable function of buttress drumming based on selectivity for buttress characteristics likely to impact sound propagation. This study provides a foundation for further assessing the cognitive underpinnings and functions of buttress drumming in wild chimpanzees. Highlights: Chimpanzees are selective in drumming tree and buttress choice.Buttress drumming is goal‐oriented and requires knowledge of suitable trees and buttresses.Long‐distance communication is a probable function of buttress drumming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioural diversity in the predation pattern of army ants (Dorylus spp.) by different populations of wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, has been proposed to reflect different cultural traditions. Chimpanzees use either stick tools (known as ant dipping) or simply their hands to prey on two groups of army ants (epigaeic and intermediate species). A recent analysis has shown that, contrary to the cultural hypothesis, the tool length and associated harvesting technique used by chimpanzees in different populations is to a large extent influenced by characteristics of the ants themselves. However, in line with the cultural hypothesis, chimpanzees at two long-term study sites in West Africa (Bossou, Guinea, and Taï National Park, Côte d''Ivoire) prey on the same five army ant species but adopt different strategies to do so. We conducted controlled human simulations of ant dipping and an ant survey at these two sites to evaluate alternative ecological explanations related to ant behaviour and ecology that could account for the observed differences in chimpanzee predation behaviour. Ant speed explained differences in tool length within Bossou but not between Bossou and Taï. Our results do not support an ecological basis underlying the lack of dipping at ant trails in Taï chimpanzees. Finally, neither ant aggressiveness (measured as speed and persistence) nor yield when using tools could explain why, unlike Bossou chimpanzees, Taï chimpanzees do not use tools to harvest epigaeic species. We conclude that an interaction of cultural and ecological factors shapes the differences in army ant predation between Taï and Bossou chimpanzees. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Despite the large body of literature on ape conservation, much of the data needed for evidence‐based conservation decision‐making is still not readily accessible and standardized, rendering cross‐site comparison difficult. To support knowledge synthesis and to complement the IUCN SSC Ape Populations, Environments and Surveys database, we created the A.P.E.S. Wiki (https://apeswiki.eva.mpg.de), an open‐access platform providing site‐level information on ape conservation status and context. The aim of this Wiki is to provide information and data about geographical ape locations, to curate information on individuals and organizations active in ape research and conservation, and to act as a tool to support collaboration between conservation practitioners, scientists, and other stakeholders. To illustrate the process and benefits of knowledge synthesis, we used the momentum of the update of the conservation action plan for western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and began with this critically endangered taxon. First, we gathered information on 59 sites in West Africa from scientific publications, reports, and online sources. Information was compiled in a standardized format and can thus be summarized using a web scraping approach. We then asked experts working at those sites to review and complement the information (20 sites have been reviewed to date). We demonstrate the utility of the information available through the Wiki, for example, for studying species distribution. Importantly, as an open‐access platform and based on the well‐known wiki layout, the A.P.E.S. Wiki can contribute to direct and interactive information sharing and promote the efforts invested by the ape research and conservation community. The Section on Great Apes and the Section on Small Apes of the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group will guide and support the expansion of the platform to all small and great ape taxa. Similar collaborative efforts can contribute to extending knowledge synthesis to all nonhuman primate species. Research highlights: We created the A.P.E.S. Wiki (https://apeswiki.eva.mpg.de), an open‐access platform with site‐level information needed for evidence‐based conservation.We illustrate the process of knowledge synthesis across sites for western chimpanzees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The forests surrounding Bossou, Guinea, are home to a small, semi-isolated chimpanzee community studied for over three decades . In 1992, Matsuzawa reported the death of a 2.5-year-old chimpanzee (Jokro) at Bossou from a respiratory illness. The infant''s mother (Jire) carried the corpse, mummified in the weeks following death, for at least 27 days. She exhibited extensive care of the body, grooming it regularly, sharing her day- and night-nests with it, and showing distress whenever they became separated. The carrying of infants'' corpses has been reported from a number of primate species, both in captivity and the wild — albeit usually lasting a few days only — suggesting a phylogenetic continuity for a behavior that is poignant testament to the close mother-infant bond which extends across different primate taxa. In this report we recount two further infant deaths at Bossou, observed over a decade after the original episode but with striking similarities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary We thank van Leeuwen et al. [1] for their response to our finding that matrilineal relationships strongly influence the style of high-arm grooming in wild chimpanzees of the Kanyawara community. We agree with them that grooming styles could be transmitted by different mechanisms in different contexts, and we appreciate their effort to assess whether the transmission of grooming styles within two captive groups in Chimfunshi accords with our result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]