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Physical activity measured by accelerometry (PA-accelerometry) is used as an indicator of physical capacity in chronic diseases. Currently, only fragmented age ranges of reference percentile curves are available for European children and adolescents. This study aimed to provide age- and sex-specific percentiles for physical activity measured by hip-worn accelerometry derived throughout the full age range of European children and adolescents. Individual-level population-based PA data measured by accelerometry from HELENA and IDEFICS/I.Family studies were pooled and harmonized. Together these studies involved children and adolescents aged 2-18 years from 12 European countries. Primary outcomes included averaged counts per minute (CPM), sedentary time (SED), light PA (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Generalized Additive Models for Location, Scale and Shape were used to derive age- and sex-specific reference percentile curves for these outcomes. The combined cohort consisted of 11,645 children and adolescents aged 2 to 18 years who contributed 14,610 valid accelerometry recordings, with a median accelerometer wear time of 6 days. This dataset allowed for the construction of age- and sex-specific reference percentile curves for CPM, SED, LPA, and MVPA. The curves demonstrated varying trends and variability across age groups., Conclusions: This study provides age- and sex-specific percentile curves for PA-accelerometry in European children and adolescents, addressing a current gap in the availability of full-age range reference data. These curves based on healthy children and adolescents can be used by clinicians, researchers, and policymakers to interpret PA-accelerometry measurements, track physical activity trends, and evaluate treatment responses and health interventions., What Is Known: • Daily physical activity (PA) is considered an important measure in various paediatric conditions. Existing reference data for PA in European children based on hip-worn accelerometers are limited to specific age ranges, and comprehensive data covering the full age range are lacking., What Is New: • The study provides age- and sex-specific reference curves for PA derived by hip-worn accelerometers in European children and adolescents. These curves aid clinicians, researchers, and policymakers in interpreting PA measurements and tracking trends over time in European children., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval: All contributing studies have been approved by the appropriate ethics committees and have been performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki. The names of the approval committees/institutional review boards of HELENA were as follows: (1) Austria: Ethics Committee of the Medicine's University from Vienne; (2) Belgium: Ethics Committee of the Gent University Hospital; (3) France: Protection committees people from Lille; (4) Germany: Ethics Committee of the Medicine's University from Dortmund; (5) Greece: Ethics Committees of the Harokopio University from Athens and University of Crete School of Medicine from Heraklion; (6) Hungary: A Pecsi Orvostudomanyi és Egészségtudomanyi Központ Regionalis Kutatas-Etikai Bizottsaga from Pècs; (7) Italy: Ethics Committee of Medical Activities of the University of Naples Federico II; (8) Spain: Ethics Committee for Clinical Research of Aragon; (9) Sweden: Regional Ethics Committee from Stockholm. The names of the approval committees/institutional review boards of IDEFICS/I.Family were as follows: (1) Belgium: Ethics Committee of the Gent University Hospital; (2) Cyprus: Cyprus National Bioethics Committee; (3) Estonia: Tallinn Medical Research Ethics Committee; (4) Germany: Ethic Commission of the University of Bremen; (5) Hungary: Medical Research Council; (6) Italy: Ethics Committee of the Local Health Authority in Avellino; (7) Poland: Bioethical Committee of the University of Rzeszów; (8) Spain: Ethics Committee for Clinical Research of Aragon; (9) Sweden: Regional Ethics Research Board in Gothenburg. Consent to participate: All participants and/or their legal guardians have given informed consent prior to inclusion in the contributing studies. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Introduction: Mood and anxiety disorders are characterized by abnormal levels of positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA) and changes in how emotions unfold over time. To better prevent and treat those disorders, it is crucial to determine which kind of indices of emotion dynamics best predict elevated depressive and generalized anxiety symptoms., Methods: 221 individuals (60 men; mean age = 46 years, SD = 15 years) completed a 7-day ecological momentary assessment study, where their positive and negative affective experience was assessed 5 times a day. For each participant, the intensity, instability, inertia, and differentiation of PA and NA were calculated. The Estonian Emotional State Questionnaire was used to assess depressive and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms., Results: We found that NA and PA intensity, and NA instability predicted elevated depressive and GAD symptoms. Models including NA instability alongside PA and NA intensity showed the best fit for both depression and generalized anxiety, as NA instability alongside other variables significantly increased the odds of having elevated depressive and GAD symptoms. Affective inertia, differentiation, and PA instability were not associated with depressive and GAD symptoms., Discussion: In addition to the mean levels of affect, it is important to study other emotion dynamic indices such as NA instability, as these offer a more nuanced view of underlying emotion dysregulation processes. This could, in the long-term, help tailor more specific prevention and intervention methods for mood and anxiety disorders., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Sultson, Murd, Havik and Konstabel.)

Objectives: The Estonian National Mental Health Study (EMHS) was conducted in 2021-2022 to provide population-wide data on mental health in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. The main objective of this paper is to describe the rationale, design, and methods of the EMHS and to evaluate the survey response., Methods: Regionally representative stratified random sample of 20,000 persons aged 15 years and older was drawn from the Estonian Population Register for the study. Persons aged 18 years and older at the time of the sampling were enrolled into three survey waves where they were invited to complete an online or postal questionnaire about mental well-being and disorders, and behavioral, cognitive, and other risk factors. Persons younger than 18 years of age were invited to fill an anonymous online questionnaire starting from wave 2. To complement and validate survey data, data on socio-demographic, health-related, and environmental variables were collected from six national administrative databases and registries. Additionally, a subsample was enrolled into a validation study using ecological momentary assessment., Results: In total, 5636 adults participated in the survey wave 1, 3751 in wave 2, and 4744 in wave 3. Adjusted response rates were 30.6%, 21.1%, and 27.6%, respectively. Women and older age groups were more likely to respond. Throughout the three survey waves, a considerable share of adult respondents screened positive for depression (27.6%, 25.1%, and 25.6% in waves 1, 2, and 3, respectively). Women and young adults aged 18 to 29 years had the highest prevalence of depression symptoms., Conclusions: The registry-linked longitudinal EMHS dataset comprises a rich and trustworthy data source to allow in-depth analysis of mental health outcomes and their correlates among the Estonian population. The study serves as an evidence base for planning mental health policies and prevention measures for possible future crises., (© 2023 The Authors. Brain and Behavior published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: (1) To develop reference values for health-related fitness in European children and adolescents aged 6-18 years that are the foundation for the web-based, open-access and multilanguage fitness platform (FitBack); (2) to provide comparisons across European countries., Methods: This study builds on a previous large fitness reference study in European youth by (1) widening the age demographic, (2) identifying the most recent and representative country-level data and (3) including national data from existing fitness surveillance and monitoring systems. We used the Assessing Levels of PHysical Activity and fitness at population level (ALPHA) test battery as it comprises tests with the highest test-retest reliability, criterion/construct validity and health-related predictive validity: the 20 m shuttle run (cardiorespiratory fitness); handgrip strength and standing long jump (muscular strength); and body height, body mass, body mass index and waist circumference (anthropometry). Percentile values were obtained using the generalised additive models for location, scale and shape method., Results: A total of 7 966 693 test results from 34 countries (106 datasets) were used to develop sex-specific and age-specific percentile values. In addition, country-level rankings based on mean percentiles are provided for each fitness test, as well as an overall fitness ranking. Finally, an interactive fitness platform, including individual and group reporting and European fitness maps, is provided and freely available online (www.fitbackeurope.eu)., Conclusion: This study discusses the major implications of fitness assessment in youth from health, educational and sport perspectives, and how the FitBack reference values and interactive web-based platform contribute to it. Fitness testing can be conducted in school and/or sport settings, and the interpreted results be integrated in the healthcare systems across Europe., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: This study aimed to examine the relationship between the timing of physical activity and within-individual differences in depressive symptoms, positive affect, and negative affect in individuals with different baseline levels of depressive symptoms., Methods: Experience sampling methodology (ESM) was used to measure real-time depressive symptoms, positive affect, and negative affect in a convenience sample of 78 healthy adults (aged M = 25.46 years, SD = 6.18; 57 females) five times per day for 14 days. We measured physical activity throughout the 14 days by using activity sensors. Baseline levels of depressive symptoms were assessed with the PHQ-9 to build subgroups with low vs. mild-moderate depressive symptoms., Results: Physical activity predicted decreased depressive symptom levels, negative affect, and increased positive affect. Associations were stronger for individuals with higher baseline levels of depressive symptoms and for physical activity between 0 and 30 min compared to physical activity between 30 and 180 min before the mood rating. Conversely, levels of depressive symptoms, positive and negative affect did not predict physical activity., Limitations: The convenience sample may not have been representative of the general population or people with depression. Accelerometers may not have detected some types of physical activities such as bicycling. Causality could not be inferred because of the observational study design., Conclusion: Individuals with higher levels of depressive symptoms may benefit from physical activity. While the effects were strongest for physical activity immediately before the mood ratings, the effects were in the same direction for up to 3 h before the mood ratings., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Li, Konstabel, Mõttus and Lemola.)

The inter-relationship between physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep (collectively defined as physical behaviours) is of interest to researchers from different fields. Each of these physical behaviours has been investigated in epidemiological studies, yet their codependency and interactions need to be further explored and accounted for in data analysis. Modern accelerometers capture continuous movement through the day, which presents the challenge of how to best use the richness of these data. In recent years, analytical approaches first applied in other scientific fields have been applied to physical behaviour epidemiology (eg, isotemporal substitution models, compositional data analysis, multivariate pattern analysis, functional data analysis and machine learning). A comprehensive description, discussion, and consensus on the strengths and limitations of these analytical approaches will help researchers decide which approach to use in different situations. In this context, a scientific workshop and meeting were held in Granada to discuss: (1) analytical approaches currently used in the scientific literature on physical behaviour, highlighting strengths and limitations, providing practical recommendations on their use and including a decision tree for assisting researchers' decision-making; and (2) current gaps and future research directions around the analysis and use of accelerometer data. Advances in analytical approaches to accelerometer-determined physical behaviours in epidemiological studies are expected to influence the interpretation of current and future evidence, and ultimately impact on future physical behaviour guidelines., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

The longitudinal study examined whether and how children's temperament traits in particular but also their age, sex as well as maternal education and age predict maternal socialization values. The sample was drawn from the IDEFICS study and included 567 mothers from Estonia whose children were 2-9 years old at Time 0 and 4-11 years old at Time 1. The findings showed that children's temperament at Time 0 predicted maternal socialization values at Time 1, but not vice versa. Mothers who perceived their child to be more imaginative at Time 0 considered self-maximization socialization values more important and social conformity-related values less important at Time 1. Child's conscientiousness and extraversion were linked positively to social conformity-related socialization values. Older mothers and those with higher level of education put more emphasis on self-maximization socialization values. Children's age and sex were not related to socialization values., (© 2021 The British Psychological Society.)

Background: Since only few longitudinal studies with appropriate study designs investigated the relationship between objectively measured physical activity (PA) and overweight, the degree PA can prevent excess weight gain in children, remains unclear. Moreover, evidence is limited on how childhood overweight determines PA during childhood. Therefore, we analyzed longitudinal trajectories of objectively measured PA and their bi-directional association with weight trajectories of children at 2- and 6-year follow-ups., Methods: Longitudinal data of three subsequent measurements from the IDEFICS/I.Family cohort study were used to analyze the bi-directional association between moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and weight status by means of multilevel regression models. Analyses comprised 3393 (2-year follow-up) and 1899 (6-year follow-up) children aged 2-15.9 years from eight European countries with valid accelerometer data and body mass index (BMI) measurements. For categorized analyses, children's weight status was categorized as normal weight or overweight (cutoff: 90th percentile of BMI) and children's PA as (in-) sufficiently active (cutoffs: 30, 45 and 60 min of MVPA per day)., Results: Children engaging in at least 60 min MVPA daily at baseline and follow-ups had a lower odds of becoming overweight (odds ratio [OR] at 2-year follow-up: 0.546, 95% CI: 0.378, 0.789 and 6-year follow-up: 0.393, 95% CI: 0.242, 0.638), compared to less active children. Similar associations were found for 45 min MVPA daily. On the other side, children who became overweight had the lowest odds to achieve 45 or 60 min MVPA daily (ORs: 0.459 to 0.634), compared to normal weight children., Conclusions: Bi-directional associations between MVPA and weight status were observed. In summary, at least 60 min MVPA are still recommended for the prevention of childhood overweight. To prevent excess weight gain, 45 min MVPA per day also showed preventive effects., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: Levels of physical activity and variation in physical activity and sedentary time by place and person in European children and adolescents are largely unknown. The objective of the study was to assess the variations in objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time in children and adolescents across Europe., Methods: Six databases were systematically searched to identify pan-European and national data sets on physical activity and sedentary time assessed by the same accelerometer in children (2 to 9.9 years) and adolescents (≥10 to 18 years). We harmonized individual-level data by reprocessing hip-worn raw accelerometer data files from 30 different studies conducted between 1997 and 2014, representing 47,497 individuals (2-18 years) from 18 different European countries., Results: Overall, a maximum of 29% (95% CI: 25, 33) of children and 29% (95% CI: 25, 32) of adolescents were categorized as sufficiently physically active. We observed substantial country- and region-specific differences in physical activity and sedentary time, with lower physical activity levels and prevalence estimates in Southern European countries. Boys were more active and less sedentary in all age-categories. The onset of age-related lowering or leveling-off of physical activity and increase in sedentary time seems to become apparent at around 6 to 7 years of age., Conclusions: Two third of European children and adolescents are not sufficiently active. Our findings suggest substantial gender-, country- and region-specific differences in physical activity. These results should encourage policymakers, governments, and local and national stakeholders to take action to facilitate an increase in the physical activity levels of young people across Europe.

Background: Physical activity (PA) is one of the major protective behaviours to prevent non-communicable diseases. Positive effects of the built environment on PA are well investigated, although evidence of this association is mostly based on cross-sectional studies. The present study aims to investigate the longitudinal effects of built environment characteristics in terms of a moveability index on PA of children in their transition phase to adolescence using data of the IDEFICS/I.Family cohort., Methods: We used data on 3394 accelerometer measurements of 2488 children and adolescents aged 3 to 15 years old from survey centres of three countries, Germany, Italy, and Sweden, who participated in up to three surveys over 6 years. In network-dependent home neighbourhoods, a moveability index was calculated based on residential density, land use mix, street connectivity, availability of public transport and public open spaces such as green spaces and public playgrounds in order to quantify opportunities for PA of children and adolescents. Linear trajectories of light PA (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) were estimated using linear mixed models accounting for repeated measurements nested within individuals. Least squares means were estimated to quantify differences in trajectories over age., Results: LPA and MVPA declined annually with age by approximately 20 min/day and 2 min/day respectively. In girls, the moveability index showed a consistent significantly positive effect on MVPA ([Formula: see text] = 2.14, 95% CI: (0.11; 4.16)) for all ages, while in boys the index significantly lessened the decline in LPA with age for each year. ([Formula: see text] = 2.68, 95% CI: (0.46; 4.90)). Availability of public open spaces was more relevant for MVPA in girls and LPA in boys during childhood, whereas in adolescence, residential density and intersection density became more important., Conclusion: Built environment characteristics are important determinants of PA and were found to have a supportive effect that ameliorates the decline in PA during the transition phase from childhood to adolescence. In childhood environmental support for leisure time PA through public open spaces was found to be the most protective factor whereas in adolescence the positive influence of street connectivity and residential density was most supportive of physical activity.

Background & Aims: Chronobiology studies periodic changes in living organisms and it has been proposed as a promising approach to investigate obesity. We analyze the association of the characteristics of the rest-activity rhythms with obesity, cardiorespiratory fitness and metabolic risk in adolescents from nine European countries., Methods: 1044 adolescents (12.5-17.5 y) were studied. Circadian health was evaluated by actigraphy with accelerometers (Actigraph GT1M). Characteristics of the daytime activity such as fragmentation (intradaily variability), estimated acrophase, and 10 h mean daytime activity index were obtained. Body composition was assessed using Bioelectrical-Impedance-Analysis, skinfold thickness, air-displacement-plethysmography and Dual-energy-X-ray-Absorptiometry. Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO 2max ) and metabolic risk were studied., Results: Highly fragmented activity rhythms were associated with obesity and central adiposity (P < 0.05). Obese adolescents had ∼3 times higher odds of having a high fragmentation of daytime activity compared to normal weight adolescents OR (95% CI) = 2.8 (1.170, 6.443). A highly fragmented rhythm was also related to lower cardiorespiratory fitness and higher metabolic risk (P < 0.05) so those adolescents classified as low fitness showed a significantly higher fragmentation of daytime activity than those included in the high fitness group (P < 0.0001). Other characteristics of the rhythms such as smaller 10 h daytime mean activity index and delayed estimated acrophase were also related to obesity and metabolic risk (P < 0.05)., Conclusions: Our results indicate that the daily organization of the rest-activity cycle is more fragmented in obese and less fit adolescents and correlates with higher metabolic risk. This fact reinforces our hypothesis that disturbances in daily rhythms can be considered as sensitive markers of poorer adolescent's health., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism. All rights reserved.)

Habitually barefoot (HB) children from the Kalenjin tribe of Kenya are known for their high physical activity levels. To date, there has been no comprehensive assessment of foot structure and function in these highly active and HB children/adolescents and link with overuse injuries., Purpose: The aim of this research is to assess foot structure, foot function, injury and physical activity levels in Kenyan children and adolescents who are HB compared with those who were habitually shod (HS)., Methods: Foot structure, function, injury prevalence, and physical activity levels were studied using two studies with equal numbers of HS and HB. HS and HB children and adolescents were matched for age, sex, and body mass. Foot arch characteristics, foot strength, and lower-limb injury prevalence were investigated in Study 1 (n = 76). Heel bone stiffness, Achilles tendon moment arm length and physical activity levels in Study 2 (n=62). Foot muscle strength was measured using a strength device TKK 3360 and heel bone stiffness by bone ultrasonometry. The moment arm length of the Achilles tendon was estimated from photographs and physical activity was assessed using questionnaires and accelerometers., Results: Foot shortening strength was greater in HB (4.8 ± 1.9 kg vs 3.5 ± 1.8 kg, P < 0.01). Navicular drop was greater in HB (0.53 ± 0.32 cm vs 0.39 ± 0.19 cm, P < 0.05). Calcaneus stiffness index was greater (right 113.5 ± 17.1 vs 100.5 ± 116.8, P < 0.01 left 109.8 ± 15.7 vs 101.7 ± 18.7, P < 0.05) and Achilles tendon moment arm shorter in HB (right, 3.4 ± 0.4 vs 3.6 ± 0.4 cm, P < 0.05; left, 3.4 ± 0.5 vs 3.7 ± 0.4 cm, P < 0.01). Lower-limb injury prevalence was 8% in HB and 61% in HS. HB subjects spent more time engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (60 ± 26 min·d vs 31 ± 13 min·d; P < 0.001)., Conclusions: Significant differences observed in foot parameters, injury prevalence and general foot health between HB and HS suggest that footwear conditions may impact on foot structure and function and general foot health. HB children and adolescents spent more time engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity and less time sedentary than HS children and adolescents.

The aim of this study was to construct a short, 30-item personality questionnaire that would be, in terms of content and meaning of the scores, as comparable as possible with longer, well-established inventories such as NEO PI-R and its clones. To do this, we shortened the formerly constructed 60-item "Short Five" (S5) by half so that each subscale would be represented by a single item. We compared all possibilities of selecting 30 items (preserving balanced keying within each domain of the five-factor model) in terms of correlations with well-established scales, self-peer correlations, and clarity of meaning, and selected an optimal combination for each domain. The resulting shortened questionnaire, XS5, was compared to the original S5 using data from student samples in 6 different countries (Estonia, Finland, UK, Germany, Spain, and China), and a representative Finnish sample. The correlations between XS5 domain scales and their longer counterparts from well-established scales ranged from 0.74 to 0.84; the difference from the equivalent correlations for full version of S5 or from meta-analytic short-term dependability coefficients of NEO PI-R was not large. In terms of prediction of external criteria (emotional experience and self-reported behaviours), there were no important differences between XS5, S5, and the longer well-established scales. Controlling for acquiescence did not improve the prediction of criteria, self-peer correlations, or correlations with longer scales, but it did improve internal reliability and, in some analyses, comparability of the principal component structure. XS5 can be recommended as an economic measure of the five-factor model of personality at the level of domain scales; it has reasonable psychometric properties, fair correlations with longer well-established scales, and it can predict emotional experience and self-reported behaviours no worse than S5. When subscales are essential, we would still recommend using the full version of S5.

Self-report measures of physical activity (PA) are easy to use and popular but their reliability is often questioned. Therefore, the general aim of the present study was to investigate the association of PA questionnaires with accelerometer derived PA, in a sample of adolescent boys. In total, 191 pubertal boys (mean age 14.0 years) completed three self-report questionnaires and wore an accelerometer (ActiGraph GT1M) for 7 consecutive days. The PA questionnaires were: International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-SF), Tartu Physical Activity Questionnaire (TPAQ), and the Inactivity subscale from Domain-Specific Impulsivity (DSI) scale. All three questionnaires were significantly correlated with accelerometer derived MVPA: the correlations were 0.31 for the IPAQ-SF MVPA, 0.34 for the TPAQ MVPA and -0.29 for the DSI Inactivity scale. Nevertheless, none of the questionnaires can be used as a reliable individual-level estimate of MVPA in male adolescents. The boys underreported their MVPA in IPAQ-SF as compared to accelerometer-derived MVPA (respective averages 43 and 56 minutes); underreporting was more marked in active boys with average daily MVPA at least 60 minutes, and was not significant in less active boys. Conversely, MVPA index from TPAQ overestimated the MVPA in less active boys but underestimated it in more active boys. The sedentary time reported in IPAQ-SF was an underestimate as compared to accelerometer-derived sedentary time (averages 519 and 545 minutes, respectively)., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Subjective energy intake (sEI) is often misreported, providing unreliable estimates of energy consumed. Therefore, relating sEI data to health outcomes is difficult. Recently, Börnhorst et al. compared various methods to correct sEI-based energy intake estimates. They criticised approaches that categorise participants as under-reporters, plausible reporters and over-reporters based on the sEI:total energy expenditure (TEE) ratio, and thereafter use these categories as statistical covariates or exclusion criteria. Instead, they recommended using external predictors of sEI misreporting as statistical covariates. We sought to confirm and extend these findings. Using a sample of 190 adolescent boys (mean age=14), we demonstrated that dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry-measured fat-free mass is strongly associated with objective energy intake data (onsite weighted breakfast), but the association with sEI (previous 3-d dietary interview) is weak. Comparing sEI with TEE revealed that sEI was mostly under-reported (74 %). Interestingly, statistically controlling for dietary reporting groups or restricting samples to plausible reporters created a stronger-than-expected association between fat-free mass and sEI. However, the association was an artifact caused by selection bias - that is, data re-sampling and simulations showed that these methods overestimated the effect size because fat-free mass was related to sEI both directly and indirectly via TEE. A more realistic association between sEI and fat-free mass was obtained when the model included common predictors of misreporting (e.g. BMI, restraint). To conclude, restricting sEI data only to plausible reporters can cause selection bias and inflated associations in later analyses. Therefore, we further support statistically correcting sEI data in nutritional analyses. The script for running simulations is provided.

Objective: Children may influence household spending through 'pester power'. The present study examined pestering through parent-child food shopping behaviours in relation to children's diet and weight status., Design: Cross-sectional and prospective analyses drawn from the IDEFICS study, a cohort study of parents and their children. Children's height and weight were measured and their recent diets were reported by parental proxy based on the Children's Eating Habits Questionnaire-FFQ at baseline and 2-year follow-up. Parents also completed questionnaires at both time points about pestering, including whether the child goes grocery shopping with them, asks for items seen on television and is bought requested food items., Setting: Participants were recruited from eight European countries for the IDEFICS study (non-nationally representative sample)., Subjects: Study participants were children aged 2-9 years at enrolment and their parents. A total of 13 217 parent-child dyads were included at baseline. Two years later, 7820 of the children were re-examined., Results: Most parents (63 %) at baseline reported 'sometimes' acquiescing to their children's requests to purchase specific foods. Pestering was modestly associated with weight and diet. At baseline, children whose parents 'often' complied consumed more high-sugar and high-fat foods. Children who 'often' asked for items seen on television were likely to become overweight after 2 years (OR=1·31), whereas 'never' asking protected against overweight (OR=0·72)., Conclusions: Pestering was modestly related to diet and weight in cross-sectional, but not longitudinal analyses. Asking for items seen on television had the most robust relationships across child outcomes and over time.