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Many psychiatric drugs act on multiple targets and therefore require screening assays that encompass a wide target space. With sufficiently rich phenotyping and a large sampling of compounds, it should be possible to identify compounds with desired mechanisms of action on the basis of behavioral profiles alone. Although zebrafish (Danio rerio) behavior has been used to rapidly identify neuroactive compounds, it is not clear what types of behavioral assays would be necessary to identify multitarget compounds such as antipsychotics. Here we developed a battery of behavioral assays in larval zebrafish to determine whether behavioral profiles can provide sufficient phenotypic resolution to identify and classify psychiatric drugs. Using the antipsychotic drug haloperidol as a test case, we found that behavioral profiles of haloperidol-treated zebrafish could be used to identify previously uncharacterized compounds with desired antipsychotic-like activities and multitarget mechanisms of action.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a serious public health burden and a leading cause of disability. Its pharmacotherapy is currently limited to modulators of monoamine neurotransmitters and second-generation antipsychotics. Recently, glutamatergic approaches for the treatment of MDD have increasingly received attention, and preclinical research suggests that metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) inhibitors have antidepressant-like properties. Basimglurant (2-chloro-4-[1-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-1H-imidazol-4-ylethynyl]-pyridine) is a novel mGlu5 negative allosteric modulator currently in phase 2 clinical development for MDD and fragile X syndrome. Here, the comprehensive preclinical pharmacological profile of basimglurant is presented with a focus on its therapeutic potential for MDD and drug-like properties. Basimglurant is a potent, selective, and safe mGlu5 inhibitor with good oral bioavailability and long half-life supportive of once-daily administration, good brain penetration, and high in vivo potency. It has antidepressant properties that are corroborated by its functional magnetic imaging profile as well as anxiolytic-like and antinociceptive features. In electroencephalography recordings, basimglurant shows wake-promoting effects followed by increased delta power during subsequent non-rapid eye movement sleep. In microdialysis studies, basimglurant had no effect on monoamine transmitter levels in the frontal cortex or nucleus accumbens except for a moderate increase of accumbal dopamine, which is in line with its lack of pharmacological activity on monoamine reuptake transporters. These data taken together, basimglurant has favorable drug-like properties, a differentiated molecular mechanism of action, and antidepressant-like features that suggest the possibility of also addressing important comorbidities of MDD including anxiety and pain as well as daytime sleepiness and apathy or lethargy., (Copyright © 2015 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)

Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) have potential for the treatment of psychiatric diseases including depression, fragile X syndrome (FXS), anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and levodopa induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease. Herein we report the optimization of a weakly active screening hit 1 to the potent and selective compounds chloro-4-[1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-1H-imidazol-4-ylethynyl]pyridine (basimglurant, 2) and 2-chloro-4-((2,5-dimethyl-1-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)ethynyl)pyridine (CTEP, 3). Compound 2 is active in a broad range of anxiety tests reaching the same efficacy but at a 10- to 100-fold lower dose compared to diazepam and is characterized by favorable DMPK properties in rat and monkey as well as an excellent preclinical safety profile and is currently in phase II clinical studies for the treatment of depression and fragile X syndrome. Analogue 3 is the first reported mGlu5 NAM with a long half-life in rodents and is therefore an ideal tool compound for chronic studies in mice and rats.

3-Amido-3-aryl-piperidines were discovered as a novel structural class of GlyT1 inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship, which was developed, led to the identification of highly potent compounds exhibiting excellent selectivity against the GlyT2 isoform, drug-like properties, and in vivo activity after oral administration.

The metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) is a glutamate-activated class C G protein-coupled receptor widely expressed in the central nervous system and clinically investigated as a drug target for a range of indications, including depression, Parkinson's disease, and fragile X syndrome. Here, we present the novel potent, selective, and orally bioavailable mGlu5 negative allosteric modulator with inverse agonist properties 2-chloro-4-((2,5-dimethyl-1-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)ethynyl)pyridine (CTEP). CTEP binds mGlu5 with low nanomolar affinity and shows >1000-fold selectivity when tested against 103 targets, including all known mGlu receptors. CTEP penetrates the brain with a brain/plasma ratio of 2.6 and displaces the tracer [(3)H]3-(6-methyl-pyridin-2-ylethynyl)-cyclohex-2-enone-O-methyl-oxime (ABP688) in vivo in mice from brain regions expressing mGlu5 with an average ED(50) equivalent to a drug concentration of 77.5 ng/g in brain tissue. This novel mGlu5 inhibitor is active in the stress-induced hyperthermia procedure in mice and the Vogel conflict drinking test in rats with minimal effective doses of 0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, respectively, reflecting a 30- to 100-fold higher in vivo potency compared with 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP) and fenobam. CTEP is the first reported mGlu5 inhibitor with both long half-life of approximately 18 h and high oral bioavailability allowing chronic treatment with continuous receptor blockade with one dose every 48 h in adult and newborn animals. By enabling long-term treatment through a wide age range, CTEP allows the exploration of the full therapeutic potential of mGlu5 inhibitors for indications requiring chronic receptor inhibition.

The nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) peptide (NOP) receptor is a non-opioid branch of the opioid receptor family implicated in several neurological and psychological disorders, such as pain, anxiety, depression, involuntary movement, addiction, seizure and dementia. Heterogeneity of NOP receptors has been proposed based on the findings of splicing variants and from binding and functional studies. We have previously reported that Ro 64-6198, a NOP receptor agonist, activated a subset, but not all, of N/OFQ-sensitive NOP receptors in midbrain ventrolateral periaqueductal grey (vlPAG). In this study, we found that a new NOP receptor ligand, (+)-5a Compound ((3aS, 6aR)-1-(cis-4-isopropylcyclohexyl)-5'-methyl-2'-phenylhexahydrospiro[piperidine-4,1'-pyrrolo[3, 4-c]pyrrole]), also activated a subset of NOP receptors in vlPAG neurons. (+)-5a Compound (0.1-30 μm) concentration-dependently activated G-protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels mediated through the NOP receptors in about 35% of the recorded vlPAG neurons. (+)-5a Compound (EC50: 605 nm) was less potent (1/12) and efficacious (47%) than N/OFQ. In (+)-5a Compound-insensitive neurons, Ro 64-6198 was also ineffective, and vice versa, but N/OFQ activated GIRK channels through NOP receptors. In (+)-5a Compound-sensitive neurons, (+)-5a Compound precluded the effect of Ro 64-6198. Immunofluorecent and morphometric studies showed that most of the (+)-5a Compound-sensitive neurons were multipolar with intensive dendritic arborization and immunoreactive to glutamic acid decarboxylase-67. It is suggested that (+)-5a Compound activates a subset of NOP receptors, similar to the Ro 64-6198-sensitive subset, in the vlPAG neurons which are mostly GABAergic. These results further support the presence of functional heterogeneity of NOP receptors in the midbrain PAG.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) share a common architecture consisting of seven transmembrane (TM) domains. Various lines of evidence suggest that this fold provides a generic binding pocket within the TM region for hosting agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators. Hence, an automated method was developed that allows a fast analysis and comparison of these generic ligand binding pockets across the entire GPCR family by providing the relevant information for all GPCRs in the same format. This methodology compiles amino acids lining the TM binding pocket including parts of the ECL2 loop in a so-called 1D ligand binding pocket vector and translates these 1D vectors in a second step into 3D receptor pharmacophore models. It aims to support various aspects of GPCR drug discovery in the pharmaceutical industry. Applications of pharmacophore similarity analysis of these 1D LPVs include definition of receptor subfamilies, prediction of species differences within subfamilies in regard to in vitro pharmacology and identification of nearest neighbors for GPCRs of interest to generate starting points for GPCR lead identification programs. These aspects of GPCR research are exemplified in the field of melanopsins, trace amine-associated receptors and somatostatin receptor subtype 5. In addition, it is demonstrated how 3D pharmacophore models of the LPVs can support the prediction of amino acids involved in ligand recognition, the understanding of mutational data in a 3D context and the elucidation of binding modes for GPCR ligands and their evaluation. Furthermore, guidance through 3D receptor pharmacophore modeling for the synthesis of subtype-specific GPCR ligands will be reported. Illustrative examples are taken from the GPCR family class C, metabotropic glutamate receptors 1 and 5 and sweet taste receptors, and from the GPCR class A, e.g. nicotinic acid and 5-hydroxytryptamine 5A receptor., (© 2011 Bentham Science Publishers)

The asymmetric synthesis and receptor pharmacology of (1S,2R,3R,5R,6S)-2-amino-3-Hydroxy-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-2,6-dicarboxylic Acid (+)-9 (HYDIA) and a few of its O-alkylated derivatives are described. The key step of the synthesis utilizes Sharpless' asymmetric dihydroxylation (AD-beta) for the kinetic resolution of a bicyclic racemic precursor olefin. In contrast to the bicyclic glutamate analogue LY354740, which is a potent and selective agonist for the group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), these new conformationally restricted and also hydroxylated or alkoxylated glutamate analogues are potent and selective antagonists for the group II mGluRs.

The optimisation of affinity and selectivity in a novel series of dual 5-HT5A/5-HT7 receptor ligands is described. Brain penetrant 2-aminodihydroquinazolines with low nanomolar affinities were identified.

The optimisation of molecular properties within a series of 2-amino dihydroquinazoline 5-HT5A/5-HT7 receptor ligands resulted in a significantly improved brain-to-plasma ratio, enhancing the pharmacological utility of these compounds. By modulating the lipophilicity and pKa, a 20-fold increase in brain-to-plasma ratio could be achieved, leading to micromolar brain concentrations after oral administration. The enantiomers of one representative of this series of improved compounds were separated, and the configuration of the eutomer was determined by X-ray crystallography.

Detailed information on the metabolic fate of lead compounds can be a powerful tool for an informed approach to the stabilization of metabolically labile compounds in the lead optimization phase. The combination of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS) has been used to give comprehensive structural data on metabolites of novel drugs in development. Recently, increased automation and the embedding of on-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) into a integrated LC-SPE-NMR-MS system have improved enormously the detection limits of this approach. The new technology platform allows the analysis of complex mixtures from microsome incubations, combining low material requirements with relatively high throughput. Such characteristics make it possible to thoroughly characterize metabolites of selected compounds at earlier phases along the path to lead identification and clinical candidate selection, thus providing outstanding guidance in the process of eliminating undesired metabolism and detecting active or potentially toxic metabolites. Such an approach was applied at the lead identification stage of a backup program on metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) allosteric inhibition. The major metabolites of a lead 5-aminothiazole-4-carboxylic acid amide 1 were synthesized and screened, revealing significant in vitro activity and possible involvement in the overall pharmacodynamic behavior of 1. The information collected on the metabolism of the highly active compound 1 was pivotal to the synthesis of related compounds with improved microsomal stability.

A novel class of potent and stable mGlu5 receptor antagonists was developed by combining information from a high-throughput screening campaign with the structure of the known anxiolytic fenobam. Representative compounds from this class show favorable pharmacokinetic properties and are active in an in vivo model of anxiety.

Optimization of affinity and microsomal stability led to identification of the potent, metabolically stable fenobam analog 4l. Robust in vivo efficacy of 4l was demonstrated in four different models of anxiety. Additionally, a ligand based pharmacophore alignment of fenobam and MPEP is proposed.

Optimisation of affinity, chemical stability, metabolic stability and solubility led from a chemically labile HTS hit 1 to mGlu5 receptor antagonists (24-26) with high affinity for the allosteric MPEP binding site, improved microsomal metabolic stability and anxiolytic-like activity in vivo as assessed by the Vogel conflict drinking test.

Fenobam [N-(3-chlorophenyl)-N'-(4,5-dihydro-1-methyl-4-oxo-1H-imidazole-2-yl)urea] is an atypical anxiolytic agent with unknown molecular target that has previously been demonstrated both in rodents and human to exert anxiolytic activity. Here, we report that fenobam is a selective and potent metabotropic glutamate (mGlu)5 receptor antagonist acting at an allosteric modulatory site shared with 2-methyl-6-phenylethynyl-pyridine (MPEP), the protypical selective mGlu5 receptor antagonist. Fenobam inhibited quisqualate-evoked intracellular calcium response mediated by human mGlu5 receptor with IC(50) = 58 +/- 2 nM. It acted in a noncompetitive manner, similar to MPEP and demonstrated inverse agonist properties, blocking 66% of the mGlu5 receptor basal activity (in an over expressed cell line) with an IC(50) = 84 +/- 13 nM. [(3)H]Fenobam bound to rat and human recombinant receptors with K(d) values of 54 +/- 6 and 31 +/- 4 nM, respectively. MPEP inhibited [(3)H]fenobam binding to human mGlu5 receptors with a K(i) value of 6.7 +/- 0.7 nM, indicating a common binding site shared by both allosteric antagonists. Fenobam exhibits anxiolytic activity in the stress-induced hyperthermia model, Vogel conflict test, Geller-Seifter conflict test, and conditioned emotional response with a minimum effective dose of 10 to 30 mg/kg p.o. Furthermore, fenobam is devoid of GABAergic activity, confirming previous reports that fenobam acts by a mechanism distinct from benzodiazepines. The non-GABAergic activity of fenobam, coupled with its robust anxiolytic activity and reported efficacy in human in a double blind placebo-controlled trial, supports the potential of developing mGlu5 receptor antagonists with an improved therapeutic window over benzodiazepines as novel anxiolytic agents.

The combination of the 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl group with a spirohydantoin motive as a central scaffold was the basis for the design of a combinatorial library targeted towards the neurokinin-1 receptor. A solution- and solid-phase procedure is described and binding affinities of representative compounds presented.

The biochemical and behavioral effects of a nonpeptidic, selective, and brain-penetrant agonist at the ORL1 receptor are reported herein. This low molecular weight compound [(1S,3aS)-8- (2,3,3a,4,5, 6-hexahydro-1H-phenalen-1-yl)-1-phenyl-1,3,8-triaza- spiro[4. 5]decan-4-one] has high affinity for recombinant human ORL1 receptors and has 100-fold selectivity for ORL1 over other members of the opioid receptor family. It is a full agonist at these receptors and elicits dose-dependent anxiolytic-like effects in a set of validated models of distinct types of anxiety states in the rat (i.e., elevated plus-maze, fear-potentiated startle, and operant conflict). When given systemically, the compound has an efficacy and potency comparable to those of a benzodiazepine anxiolytic such as alprazolam or diazepam. However, this compound is differentiated from a classical benzodiazepine anxiolytic by a lack of efficient anti-panic-like activity, absence of anticonvulsant properties, and lack of effects on motor performance and cognitive function at anxiolytic doses (0.3 to 3 mg/kg i.p.). No significant change in intracranial self-stimulation performance and pain reactivity was observed in this dose range. Higher doses of this compound (>/=10 mg/kg) induced disruption in rat behavior. These data confirm the notable anxiolytic-like effects observed at low doses with the orphanin FQ/nociceptin neuropeptide given locally into the brain and support a role for orphanin FQ/nociceptin in adaptive behavioral fear responses to stress.