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This document gives a wide array of target values on nature‐based solutions (NBS). In the review,global institutions and their target thresholds for environmental pressures are discussed, as well asindividual target values set by European frontrunner cities. It also pays tribute to the proposal by theEuropean Commission for a regulation on nature restoration, for the first time setting concrete targetsfor increasing urban ecosystem areas. The adopted text by the European Parliament to requireMember States to define satisfactory increasing trends at national level for urban green space andcanopy cover instead of quantitative targets first proposed in the nature restoration proposal makesthis report even more relevant. This deliverable delineates the gaps and needs to defineenvironmental target values as standards throughout European cities. Therefore, the REGREENproject elaborates a typology of target values and illustrates synergies and dependencies betweenthem. Furthermore, the barriers through silo thinking in governance are reflected. They may hinderachievement of NBS targets in cities. Major conclusions are drawn reflecting cross‐sectoral insightsfrom scientists, stakeholders and planners. Multiple benefits and trade‐offs are discussed to deepenthe knowledge of dependencies and synergies between types of targets. Policies demandrecommendations and rely on findings like multifunctional benefits from NBS to underpinargumentation. Further interaction and transdisciplinary work must be undertaken to break downbarriers and promote implementation of urban NBS. To do so, this document on recommendation ofpotential target values in cities may aid fostering this interaction.

The REGREEN NbS Transition Handbook provides a comprehensive overview of the REGREEN project's key findings and outcomes, focusing on Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for urban sustainability in Europe and China. The handbook is structured into nine chapters, each addressing crucial aspects of NbS design, implementation and governance. Below is an overview of the chapters as outlined in the handbook: Introduction and Urban Living Labs (ULLs): Highlights the strategic positioning of Urban Living Labs (ULLs), serving as innovative testbeds in the Local and Regional Governments (LGR) for co-creating knowledge and fostering urban innovation. The REGREEN project showcased its crucial role as a catalyst for strategic developments, capacity building, and the design and implementation of NbS by local and regional public organisations. Nature-based learning and NbS: Emphasises the pivotal role of education in addressing urbanisation and climate change challenges. Developed by an interdisciplinary team, REGREEN's educational approaches are participatory and action-oriented, instilling an appreciation for nature and awareness of NbS among the younger generation. Urbanisation and Ecosystem Services (ES): Explores the relationship between urbanisation and ES in Europe and China, with a focus on NbS as an approach. The chapter advocates for effective policies and the leveraging of NbS, particularly green and grey built infrastructure, to enhance urban resilience. Urban Ecosystem Service Mapping and Modelling: Provides a comprehensive overview of existing datasets on urban ES, advocating for standardised, comparable data. The chapter offers actionable insights for policymakers and urban practitioners, stressing the integration of ES into urban planning and collaborative, interdisciplinary decision-making approaches. Wellbeing Values of NbS: Delves into the comprehensive exploration of the health and well-being values associated with NbS, emphasising the complex nature of assigning val

Urbanisation and climate change have increased the need for equitable access and visibility of urban green and blue spaces (GBS), to promote the sustainability and resilience of cities and to improve the well-being of their inhabitants. In this paper, we test an implementation of the newly proposed guideline to achieve equitable greening, the 3-30-300 rule, in three European cities: Paris Region (France), Aarhus Municipality (Denmark), and Grad Velika Gorica (Croatia). In this analysis, every residential building should have at least three viewable trees, 30% neighbourhood GBS cover, and a GBS of at least 1 hectare within 300 m. Our results show that none of the cities currently meet any of these three components, and the three cities differed in which rules were most closely met. In our implementation, substantial changes were needed in all cities to meet the guidelines: 12.6% of Paris, 10% of Aarhus, and 18.4% of Velika Gorica’s urban footprint were converted to grass or tree cover, with implications for >100,000 buildings and >900,000 inhabitants. Our study discusses how existing conditions in each city impacted the viability of meeting the rule and proposes key considerations for future implementations of such guidelines, drawing on examples of innovative GBS already implemented globally.

Urbanisation and climate change have increased the need for equitable access and visibility of urban green and blue spaces (GBS), to promote the sustainability and resilience of cities and to improve the well-being of their inhabitants. In this paper, we test an implementation of the newly proposed guideline to achieve equitable greening, the 3-30-300 rule, in three European cities: Paris Region (France), Aarhus Municipality (Denmark), and Grad Velika Gorica (Croatia). In this analysis, every residential building should have at least three viewable trees, 30% neighbourhood GBS cover, and a GBS of at least 1 hectare within 300 m. Our results show that none of the cities currently meet any of these three components, and the three cities differed in which rules were most closely met. In our implementation, substantial changes were needed in all cities to meet the guidelines: 12.6% of Paris, 10% of Aarhus, and 18.4% of Velika Gorica’s urban footprint were converted to grass or tree cover, with implications for >100,000 buildings and >900,000 inhabitants. Our study discusses how existing conditions in each city impacted the viability of meeting the rule and proposes key considerations for future implementations of such guidelines, drawing on examples of innovative GBS already implemented globally.

With more than 75% of the European Union’s population living in urban areas covering 21.5% of the EU territory, the importance of climate-resilient cities, towns and suburbs has increased dramatically. However, the rising impact of human-induced land-use changes on ecosystem services (ES) poses a major challenge to the urban environment. This study focuses on scenario development for nature-based solutions (NbS) in a European town with its intense development area. The concept is exemplified in a town in Croatia, Grad Velika Gorica (GVG), that like many others cities undergoes urbanisation processes with limited resources. It serves as a showpiece for the influence of NbS, in particular street trees along various paths. Using spatial analysis and modelling, the approach explores NbS for future urbanisation. The results, supported by quantitative analysis, show that 49% of cycle lanes and footpaths in GVG can be shaded by strategically planted street trees. The shading scenario analysis provides a nuanced perspective on the potential of NbS, offering insights into the key tasks for a climate-resilient city and opportunities towards equitable, green and healthy urban areas. In the context of urbanisation processes and climate adaptation, the study is in line with the overarching objectives of the European Commission which emphasises the need for sustainable NbS alternatives to address environmental challenges. The findings contribute to the framework of informed decision-making towards urban climate resilience. It also supports the pursuit of a sustainable local governance for climate-adjusted environmental quality in urban planning. As towns and cities grapple with the imperative of balancing urban development with environmental protection, this research highlights the central role of NbS, particularly street trees, in shaping climate-resilient and more sustainable urban environments for human well-being in cities.

Chapter 10 (in German). Als naturbasierte Lösungen (NBL) werden auf EU-Ebene naturbezogene Ansätze bezeichnet, die als Instrumente zur Bewältigung gesellschaftlicher Herausforderungen hinsichtlich des Klimawandels dienen. Eine Stadt erhöht ihre Resilienz, wenn ihre NBL-Ansätze auch soziale Probleme und das Wohlergehen der Bürger*innen ansprechen. Dieser Beitrag ist der beispielhaften Anwendung von NBL in drei europäischen Städten unterschiedlicher Größe gewidmet: einer Megacity (Region Paris, Frankreich), einer mittelgroßen Stadt (Aarhus, Dänemark) und einer Kleinstadt (Velika Gorica, Kroatien). Dabei wird untersucht, welche Herausforderungen und Chancen bei der Anwendung von NBL in verschiedenen sozialen und ökologischen Systemen auftreten und inwiefern NBL ein Schlüssel zur städtischen Resilienz sind.

Als naturbasierte Lösungen (NBL) werden auf EU-Ebene naturbezogene Ansätze bezeichnet, die als Instrumente zur Bewältigung gesellschaftlicher Herausforderungen hinsichtlich des Klimawandels dienen. Eine Stadt erhöht ihre Resilienz, wenn ihre NBL-Ansätze auch soziale Probleme und das Wohlergehen der Bürger*innen ansprechen. Dieser Beitrag ist der beispielhaften Anwendung von NBL in drei europäischen Städten unterschiedlicher Größe gewidmet: einer Megacity (Region Paris, Frankreich), einer mittelgroßen Stadt (Aarhus, Dänemark) und einer Kleinstadt (Velika Gorica, Kroatien). Dabei wird untersucht, welche Herausforderungen und Chancen bei der Anwendung von NBL in verschiedenen sozialen und ökologischen Systemen auftreten und inwiefern NBL ein Schlüssel zur städtischen Resilienz sind.

Interrelationships between urban and rural areas are fundamental for the development and safeguarding of viable future living conditions and quality of life. These areas are not well-delineated or self-sufficient, and existing interrelations may privilege one over the other. Major urban challenges facing China and Europe are related to changes in climate, environment, and to decision-making that makes urban and rural landscapes more susceptible to environmental pressures. Focusing on the six European and Chinese cities and surrounding rural areas, under study in the joint EC and MOST-funded REGREEN project, we examine how nature-based solutions (NBS) may assist in counteracting these pressures. We explore urban-rural dependencies and partnerships regarding NBS that can enhance resilience in Europe and China. We analyse differences between European and Chinese systems of governance, reflecting on the significance of the scale of research needed to understand how NBS provide benefits. We highlight interactions between differently delineated sheds (watershed, airshed, natureshed, and peopleshed), which influence the interrelationships between urban and rural areas. There may be one-way or two-way interdependence, and the impact may be uni or multi-directional. The European and Chinese solutions, exemplified in this article, tackle the nexus of environmental and peoplesheds. We discuss complex human interactions (and how to model them) that may, or may not, lead to viable and equitable partnerships for implementing NBS in cities within Europe and in China

Urban expansion and ecological restoration policies can simultaneously affect land-cover changes and further affect ecosystem services (ES). However, it is unclear whether and to what extent the distribution and equity of urban ES are influenced by the stage of urban development and government policies. This study aims to assess the quantity and equity of ES under different scenarios in cites of China and Europe. Firstly, we used the Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent (CLUE-S) model to simulate future land cover under three scenarios: business-as-usual (BAU), a market-liberal scenario (MLS), and an ecological protection scenario (EPS). Then using ecosystem service model approaches and the landscape analysis, the dynamics of green infrastructure (GI) fraction and connectivity, carbon sequestration, and PM2.5 removal were further evaluated. The results show that: (1) over the past 20 years, Chinese cities have experienced dramatic changes in land cover and ES relative to European cities. (2) Two metropolises in China, Shanghai and Beijing have experienced an increase in the fraction and connectivity of GI and ES in the long-term built-up areas between 2010 and 2020. (3) EPS scenarios are not only effective in increasing the quantity of ES but also in improving the equity of ES distribution. The proposed framework as well as the results may provide important guidance for future urban planning and sustainable city development.

Remotely sensed land surface temperature (LST) is often used as a proxy for air temperature in urban heat island studies, particularly to illustrate relative temperature differences between locations. Two sensors are used predominantly in the literature, Landsat and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). However, each has shortcomings that currently limit its utility for many urban applications. Landsat has high spatial resolution but low temporal resolution, and may miss hot days, while MODIS has high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution, which is inadequate to represent the fine grain heterogeneity in cities. In this paper, we overcome this inadequacy by combining high spatial frequency Environmental Services (ES), Landsat-driven Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and MODIS low spatial frequency background LST at different spatial frequency bands (spatial spectral composition). The method is able to provide fine scale LST four times daily on any day of the year. Using data from Paris in 2019 we show that (1) daytime cooling by vegetation reaches a maximum of 30 °C, above which there is no further increase in cooling. In addition, (2) the cooling is relatively local and does not extend further than 200 m beyond the boundary of the NBS. This model can be used to quantify the benefits of NBS in providing cooling in cities.

Urban expansion and ecological restoration policies can simultaneously affect land-cover changes and further affect ecosystem services (ES). However, it is unclear whether and to what extent the distribution and equity of urban ES are influenced by the stage of urban development and government policies. This study aims to assess the quantity and equity of ES under different scenarios in cites of China and Europe. Firstly, we used the Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent (CLUE-S) model to simulate future land cover under three scenarios: business-as-usual (BAU), a market-liberal scenario (MLS), and an ecological protection scenario (EPS). Then using ecosystem service model approaches and the landscape analysis, the dynamics of green infrastructure (GI) fraction and connectivity, carbon sequestration, and PM2.5 removal were further evaluated. The results show that: (1) over the past 20 years, Chinese cities have experienced dramatic changes in land cover and ES relative to European cities. (2) Two metropolises in China, Shanghai and Beijing have experienced an increase in the fraction and connectivity of GI and ES in the long-term built-up areas between 2010 and 2020. (3) EPS scenarios are not only effective in increasing the quantity of ES but also in improving the equity of ES distribution. The proposed framework as well as the results may provide important guidance for future urban planning and sustainable city development.

Remotely sensed land surface temperature (LST) is often used as a proxy for air temperature in urban heat island studies, particularly to illustrate relative temperature differences between locations. Two sensors are used predominantly in the literature, Landsat and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). However, each has shortcomings that currently limit its utility for many urban applications. Landsat has high spatial resolution but low temporal resolution, and may miss hot days, while MODIS has high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution, which is inadequate to represent the fine grain heterogeneity in cities. In this paper, we overcome this inadequacy by combining high spatial frequency Environmental Services (ES), Landsat-driven Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and MODIS low spatial frequency background LST at different spatial frequency bands (spatial spectral composition). The method is able to provide fine scale LST four times daily on any day of the year. Using data from Paris in 2019 we show that (1) daytime cooling by vegetation reaches a maximum of 30 °C, above which there is no further increase in cooling. In addition, (2) the cooling is relatively local and does not extend further than 200 m beyond the boundary of the NBS. This model can be used to quantify the benefits of NBS in providing cooling in cities.

Urbanisation processes inherently influence land cover (LC) and have dramatic impacts on the amount, distribution and quality of vegetation cover. The latter are the source of ecosystem services (ES) on which humans depend. However, the temporal and thematical dimensions are not documented in a comparable manner across Europe and China. Three cities in China and three cities in Europe were selected as case study areas to gain a picture of spatial urban dynamics at intercontinental scale. First, we analysed available global and continental thematic LC products as a data pool for sample selection and referencing our own mapping model. With the help of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform and earth observation data, an automatic LC mapping method tailored for more detailed ES features was proposed. To do so, differentiated LC categories were quantified. In order to obtain a balance between efficiency and high classification accuracy, we developed an optimal classification model by evaluating the importance of a large number of spectral, texture-based indices and topographical information. The overall classification accuracies range between 73% and 95% for different time slots and cities. To capture ES related LC categories in great detail, deciduous and coniferous forests, cropland, grassland and bare land were effectively identified. To understand inner urban options for potential new ES, dense and dispersed built-up areas were differentiated with good results. In addition, this study focuses on the differences in the characteristics of urban expansion witnessed in China and Europe. Our results reveal that urbanisation has been more intense in the three Chinese cities than in the three European cities, with an 84% increase in the entire built-up area over the last two decades. However, our results also show the results of China’s ecological restoration policies, with a total of 963 km2 of new green and blue LC created in the last two decades. We proved that our auto

This synthesis report is part of the deliverables of the EC funded REGREEN project and elaborates a profound baseline for further integrated research in Work Package 3, “Mapping and Modelling Ecosystem Services” in their multiple expressions for human well‐being provided by nature‐based solutions (NBS). It covers the first nine months of the project’s runtime in which we evaluate scale‐dependent data and models by exploiting existing frameworks and collating data at various scales to quantify ecosystem services (ES), spanning green and blue infrastructure in varied cultural and climatic contexts. Based on the indicator frameworks EKLIPSE and Nature4Cities, we continue to develop an integrated and lean indicator framework to capture synergies and trade‐offs from NBS for multiple ES, thus allowing for weighting and setting priorities of the demand and supply indicators and fulfil the best adapted NBS at differing spatial scales. Existing maps and models, aiming at quantifying specific ES, vary in complexity and applicability. The purpose is to evaluate available data at different scales as well as mapping characteristics and modelling in order to explore suitability and applicability for quantification of ES in the respective urban living labs (ULLs). By pulling the different disciplinary strands together and understanding each other’s research approaches, we are able to formulate the common need for data, and establish a common understanding of indicators and their related frameworks for ES, as well as illustrating the linkages to other work packages. Our most important results are a first mapping of land use and land cover in different ULLs presented in Section 5, and, and first modelling achievements exemplified in Section 6. Beyond, to deepen our common understanding of ES mapping and modelling, we developed eight fact sheets that display our products, methods, and pinpointed aims for NBS implementations in REGREEN (see Appendix). To conclude, we continue our rese

This document forms part of the context‐setting for the REGREEN project, and describes the maindrivers and pressures associated with urbanization which are the focus of the Urban Living Labs (ULLs)within the project. The pressures are primarily environmental, but shaped by social and economicfactors. The report illustrates how social factors interact with green, blue and grey infrastructure toshape the opportunities for implementing NBS to address these challenges.Contributors to this report come from WP2 (challenges), WP3 (mapping and modelling) and all sixULLs: Paris, Aarhus, Velika Gorica, Shanghai, Beijing and Ningbo.Each ULL ranks and describes the main pressures facing them. Air pollution, noise and heat are thetop three pressures in Beijing and Velika Gorica. In Aarhus and Paris, the top three are biodiversityloss, water quality and flooding. In the other two Chinese ULLs, Ningbo and Shanghai, the top threeissues are air pollution, water quality and flooding. These pressures are explored in more detail,including the health and societal impacts they cause.Urban sprawl is separately addressed as a pressure, illustrated by a historical analysis of the rate ofchange in urban extent in all six ULLs since 1985. The expansion of urban area in the Chinese ULLs issubstantially greater than any of the European ULLs.Social and economic factors, which influence vulnerability and exposure to pressures, are alsodiscussed. The literature suggests that age is the main risk factor for negative health impacts fromhigh‐temperatures, while deprivation is a risk factor for PM2.5 associated health impacts.The report discusses the important role of spatial and temporal variability in pressures and in thepotential of NBS to address these pressures. This highlights the importance of capturing spatial andtemporal variation in data representing the pressures, but also that it is critical to have appropriatecontextual data, particularly those data relating to people (e.g. sociodemograph