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In the 150 years since Sternberg's Law of downstream fining was published, causes and complications have proliferated with research in many fluvial environments. The basic relationship is a first-order differential equation expressing an energy relationship, and the geologic causes and effects that fall under its umbrella are diverse. Grain size distributions of sands provide indications of modes of deposition, but gravels do not. However, while competence is seldom a limiting factor for sands, it is for gravels. The study area includes the low-relief Great Plains and the high relief of the Rocky Mountains. Island mountain ranges complicate this somewhat, but stream courses are sufficiently simple for Sternberg's Law. Most of the study area exhibits features generally believed to have resulted from Ice-Age glaciation. Catastrophic evidence in the form of planation surfaces is also present. Thus channelized flow, transport by ice, and sheet flow are all candidate processes for transport of gravel. Predictions of grain size distributions from these processes are compared with results from statistical analysis of 5,839 sieve analysis reports. The results indicate a complex history for the surficial gravel deposits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research has produced data useful in inferring burial depths for sandstones from compaction microtextures. Burial depths can also be inferred from erosional remnants and coal rank, among other means. These methods are especially useful over generally horizontal plains when other methods are unavailable to provide minimum overburden depths. That immense amounts of erosion occurred in the study area has long been recognized, but no effective lithification model has been available whereby to estimate burial depths or diagenetic environments. In this paper, we present research from the northern Great Plains focused on sandstones in an effort to develop a semi-quantitative lithification model for estimating initial overburden thickness (burial depth) and conditions of lithification. While development of such a model eludes us, approximations are possible and can be very helpful in studying Earth history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive Flood model requires an appraisal of the rock record. At the global scale, knowing the global volume and distribution of such rock is an important first step. This requires significant mapping and quantifying of rock volume, which in turn requires determining basal and upper diluvial boundaries for each location. An important question in determining basal boundaries is how to address Precambrian sedimentary and volcanic rocks. We present strategies for evaluating such rocks vis a vis the Genesis Flood, concluding that many such rocks should be considered diluvial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithification is important to diluvial geology and the mineral industry, especially petroleum. Lithification can be used to determine the amount of eroded overburden, which we apply to North Central Montana. There are also five other ways to determine erosion and, using these, secular scientists have estimated immense continental erosion. We delve into the variables affecting lithification, emphasizing diagenesis and, in particular, mechanical and chemical compaction of sandstone. Despite many difficulties, the study of lithification has produced some data useful in inferring burial depths for sandstones from compaction microtextures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Noahic Flood deposited and emplaced a significant amount of sedimentary and volcanic rock on the continents. Much of it remains despite appreciable Recessional Stage erosion. How much? We answer using a method in Colorado as a pilot for many other locations. The principle is simple: creating grids of the basal and upper diluvial boundaries, then subtracting the lower from the upper. In Colorado, we chose the top of the Precambrian crystalline surface as our basal boundary and digitized a Colorado Geological Survey map into a Geographic Information System (GIS). NOAA's ETOPO1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of surface topography was selected as the upper boundary. Small volumes of Precambrian sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks and most of the San Juan and Thirty-Nine Mile volcanic fields were not included in the final calculation, and minor postdiluvial sediments were ignored. The total Flood rock record in Colorado totals more than one-half million cubic kilometers, predominantly in six sedimentary basins. Our method allows recalculation for revised or alternate boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global sedimentary thickness (isopach) maps show their distribution on continents and in oceans. Underlying numbers provide volume and average thickness estimates. Of particular interest are thick accumulations on continental margins. For some diluvialists, they represent deposition during the Recessive Stage of the Flood, reinforcing a high post-Flood boundary. A Flood Regression Model proposes that the post-Flood boundary is a time-transgressive geomorphological boundary that links upstream erosion to downstream transport and deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Confidence in forensic natural history increases when data are simple, observable, and complete. Larger scale often helps. For continental sedimentary rock and marine sediments, the best combination of these factors would be found in assessing their global volume and distribution. Geologists developed estimates long ago, but only in recent decades have database and mapping technology combined to allow reasonably accurate global maps of continental and marine sediment. Just recently, a good estimate of the volume and average thickness of the ocean sediments became available through the GlobSed project. The volume and thickness of the continental sediments is more difficult to describe for several reasons; defining the continent-ocean boundary is one. Defining Precambrian sedimentary basins and their relationship to the Genesis Flood adds uncertainty, but the goal of defining the global distribution of Flood sediments is worth pursuing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Williston Basin of central North America contains prodigious quantities of coal and oil. Could the antediluvian biosphere have provided this carbon mass, or did it require many millions of years to accumulate? In this concluding part, we focus on fossil fuels. As we have seen many times in many places, what appear to be strong arguments against the Biblical view of Earth history turn out to be strong arguments against uniformitarianism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Petrified forests" are common tourist attractions, invariably used to promote uniformitarian thinking. One well-known example is in Theodore Roosevelt National Park near Medora, North Dakota, U.S.A. The petrified wood is contained in various strata of the "Paleogene" Fort Union Group in the Williston Basin, but in the park primarily in the lower Sentinel Butte Formation. This formation exhibits much evidence against uniformitarian hypotheses but which fits well with the Genesis Flood. The site shows laterally extensive and vertically limited horizons containing fossilized tree trunks, divorced from fine roots and branches, with no discernible rooting medium such as paleosols, and closely associated with bentonite, iron oxide, and coal. The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the area bespeak continuous, rapid deposition and powerful currents. The uniformitarian scientists also have the problem of how silicification occurs prior to the more rapid normal decay process typical of the supposed swamps which are the interpreted depositional environment for the Fort Union. Burial of vertical trees sinking from log mats and rapid silicification associated with volcanic activity during the Bibilical Flood (responsible for the bentonites) is a more plausible explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Williston Basin of central North America is famous for its "nearly complete geologic column," and its huge fossil fuel resources. As an incratonic basin with relatively few unconformities and representatives of each of the purported geologic time periods, it has been a poster child for deep time. However, many features appear at variance with uniformitarianism and an ancient Earth. These include the thick sedimentary sequence, gravel-capped planation surfaces, petrified wood and other fossils, and fossil fuels. The geologic setting is presented, showing weaknesses and strengths in the diluvial hypothesis of the basin's origin and history. The mental straitjacket of uniformitarianism results in petrified ideas that hinder understanding of likely geologic processes. This is particularly demonstrated by extensive planation surfaces with gravel veneers of largely exotic lithologies, which are readily explained by diluvial processes but not by uniformitarianism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Part I argued that floods are an important category of geologic processes and showed that hydraulic relationships are nonlinear, resulting in episodic rather than continual geologic change. Part II presented field examples from central Montana in 2011. Part III used information from the central Montana projects to show that geologic processes range from slow and localized to episodic and regional (even unique and global). Geologic paradigms can negatively impact field work for both uniformitarians and diluvialists. These negative effects can be avoided by the "mixed question" approach and "multiple working hypotheses." In Part IV, limitations of extrapolating from local floods to megafloods and from scientific observation to natural history speculation were discussed. Here, evidence is summarized to highlight some important principles to guide geologic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impact craters in the landscape and subsurface have received increasing attention in recent decades, particularly after popularization of the impact theory for the demise of the dinosaurs. Diluvialists also debate the possible role of impacts in the Genesis Flood. Thus, both uniformitarians and diluvialists have been on the lookout for more impact craters. In 2012, we investigated a candidate crater, Cayuse Basin in Judith Basin County, Montana. While we did not discover evidence for a crater, the process itself provided good lessons for both impact enthusiasts and detractors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are a key category of geologic processes, as presented in Part I. Examples of flood-related projects the author has worked on were presented in Part II. Part III showed that geologic paradigms can have negative effects on field work, sometimes causing evolutionists to miss or ignore evidence for relatively recent, catastrophic, regional-toglobal processes. Creationists can become so enamoured with "Flood models" that they can likewise miss evidence of small-scale, slow geologic processes (Part III). Both positions present a false dilemma since both current processes and very different past processes contributed to modern landscapes. In this paper, evidence for megafloods is presented along with peculiarities of scale, evidence for equifinality of disparate processes, and some of the limitations of extrapolating from local floods to megafloods and from regional megafloods to the Deluge. While good analogues are essential, it is also essential to recognize their limitations, especially effects of scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are a key category of geologic processes. Parts I and II of this series provided some examples of geologic work by floods and related processes in Central Montana as witnessed by the author and how these may apply to the study of earth history. In Part III, geologic processes associated with these engineering projects are presented that are not flood processes. Evolutionists tend to overlook or resist evidence for catastrophic, large-scale processes (especially diluvial processes), while creationists can be tempted to overlook or downplay the role of smaller-scale processes that are presently active. This is a false dilemma, as these examples illustrate. The problem is one of philosophy and method, not of evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As argued in Part I of this series, floods are a key category of geologic processes. Common floods make important analogues to megafloods, including the Deluge of Noah's day. This paper provides some examples of geologic work by floods and related processes in Central Montana as experienced by the author, and also provides ideas about how these may apply to the study of earth history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are a key category of geologic processes. Creationists often refer to "Flood geology," while those who try to emphasize evidence for intelligent design without any reference to the Bible often avoid geology entirely, and those with traditional old earth beliefs sometimes downplay the effects of floods. Floods observed in today's world make important analogues to megafloods, including the Deluge of Noah's day. This paper provides some examples of geologic work by floods and related processes in Central Montana as experienced by the author and also provides ideas about how these may apply to the study of earth history. It is important to recognize the limitations of analogues, especially effects of scale with these episodic events. Part I introduces flood geology and provides data and interpretations related to observed floods, starting with basic open channel flow equations and principles of scour analysis. Initial scour estimates for a flood in the study area are presented. Scour analysis is complex and beset by much uncertainty, but it is still very useful since science must be constrained by real world data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earlier papers in this series addressed the climatology and historic observations of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age and how the data obtained from the Little Ice Age should constrain our study of climate change and our speculations regarding previous glaciations. In this final paper of the series, geologic observations resulting from the Little Ice Age are presented. As climatologic observations from recent centuries should constrain paleoclimatology, so also should geologic observations from Little Ice Age deposits constrain our interpretation of apparently glacial deposits elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The explanation for "overthrusts" and "thrusts" is one of many challenges facing creation researchers. We evaluated the stacked thrusts in the Sun River Canyon, along the Rocky Mountain Front, about 100 km west of Great Falls, Montana, USA. We have examined four possibilities for these thrusts, and have eliminated the uniformitarian option of slow uphill movement of older strata over millions of years, because there is little broken rock or deformation at the contact. We also examined a paraconformity of 130 million years but saw no evidence for deformation or erosion, suggesting that this "missing time" is imaginary. At present levels, erosion would denude the continent to sea level in a maximum of 50 million years. This places constraints on the timing of thrusting. Absence of deformation or motion at bedding planes along the northeast shore of Gibson Reservoir also suggests that four proposed minor thrust faults do not exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1970, George Gaylord Simpson discussed six foundations of natural history. Although his understanding of each foundation was largely in error, the six foundations are important. The third foundation, historicism, again shows that misunderstandings among modern scientists spring from their worldview of naturalism and that those errors are corrected by biblical theology, which remains the ultimate foundation for truth in natural history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because the concepts behind the terms "origin science" and "operation science" are deficient in defending a Christian view of science and history from secular positivism, an alternative scheme is suggested that accommodates a traditional Christian view of truth. In contrast to origin and operation science, we suggest that: (1) origins (properly defined) is a question of metaphysics, (2) the study of the past is the domain of history, and (3) science addresses present phenomena and timeless rules of nature. Interdisciplinary investigations like natural history or historical science are best addressed as "mixed questions." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earlier papers in this series introduced methods of studying past climate change, the historicity of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, importance of the Little Ice Age in understanding climate change and constraining climatic models, and the importance of the North Atlantic region in understanding and applying constraints on climatic and glacial models. Earlier papers included summaries of the effects of the Little Ice Age in Iceland, Norway, and Greenland, and how the data obtained from the Little Ice Age should constrain our study of climate change. This paper presents an application of Little Ice Age data to our understanding of the inferred postdiluvial Great Ice Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earlier papers in this series introduced methods of studying past climate change, the historicity of the Little Ice Age as well as the Medieval Warm Period, the importance of the Little Ice Age in understanding climate change and constraining climatic models, and the importance of the North Atlantic region in understanding and applying constraints on climatic and glacial models. Earlier papers included summaries of the effects of the Little Ice Age in Iceland, Norway, and Greenland. This paper presents an analysis of how the Little Ice Age climate-change record should constrain paleoclimatology and speculations on potential climatic-forcing mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terms "origin science" and "operation science" are used to explain the nature of science, especially as it relates to history. But they are an inadequate response to positivism. The proposal for multiple kinds of science was an attempt to answer claims from the 1980s creation trials that evolution was science and creation was religion. Proponents of "origin" and "operation" science sought an alternative inside science, rather than in the broader context of the Christian worldview. In addition to problems in their view of the history of science, "origin science" fails its own criteria and "operation science" is redundant. The past and singularities, key factors in this scheme, are not proper topics of science. Finally, the proposal includes a deficient understanding of uniformity and mistakenly accepts the "god-of-the-gaps" fallacy and methodological naturalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terms "origin science" and "operation science" are used to explain the nature of science, especially as it relates to history. But they are an inadequate response to positivism. The proposal for multiple kinds of science was an attempt to answer claims from the 1980s creation trials that evolution was science and creation was religion. Proponents of "origin" and "operation" science sought an alternative inside science, rather than in the broader context of the Christian worldview. In addition to problems in their view of the history of science, "origin science" fails its own criteria and "operation science" is redundant. The past and singularities, key factors in this scheme, are not proper topics of science. Finally, the proposal includes a deficient understanding of uniformity and mistakenly accepts the "god-of-the-gaps" fallacy and methodological naturalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first paper in this series introduced methods of studying past climate change. Subsequent papers addressed the historicity of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, the importance of the Little Ice Age in understanding climate change and constraining climatic models, and an account of effects of the Little Ice Age in Iceland and Norway. This paper presents a summary of the climate change record in Greenland, especially for the Little Ice Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first two parts of this series (Klevberg and Oard, 2011a, 2011b) introduced methods of studying past climate change, the historicity of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, and the importance of the Little Ice Age in understanding climate change and constraining climatic models. The third part (Klevberg and Oard, 2012) provided more detailed reasons for concentrating on the North Atlantic region and summarized the rich climatic and glaciologic history of Iceland. Our study of the effects of the Little Ice Age in the North Atlantic region continues with this paper, which presents a summary of climate change indicators and the history of the Little Ice Age in Norway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A response from the authors John K. Reed and Peter Klevberg in the article "Questions from a Noncombatant" in the Winter 2015 volume of the journal is presented.

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "No Imaginary Uniformitarian Thrusts" by Timothy I. Clarey.