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This article presents a set of change management strategies found across several models and frameworks and identifies how frequently change management practitioners implement these strategies in practice. We searched the literature to identify 15 common strategies found in 16 different change management models and frameworks. We also created a questionnaire based on the literature and distributed it to change management practitioners. Findings suggest that strategies related to communication, stakeholder involvement, encouragement, organizational culture, vision, and mission should be used when implementing organizational change.

Mobile performance support systems (MPSS) involve the use of handheld and wearable devices to assist workers to complete job tasks that are not tied to a fixed location. This paper acknowledges MPSS as an emerging human performance technology (HPT) intervention and distinguishes the differences between mobile learning and MPSS. MPSS focuses on performance outcomes, whereas mobile learning focuses on learning outcomes. The paper presents a review of the foundations for MPSS while focusing on its delivery methods, characteristics, benefits, and use conditions in the workplace. Implications for HPT practitioners to make informed decisions when considering adopting MPSS in their organizations are provided.

Competencies that constitute the instructional design profession and how these competencies should be measured have been of interest to researchers for many years. Among the competency sets developed to date, the ibstpi® instructional designer competencies have been widely used by researchers, practitioners, educational programs, and employers in the field of Instructional Design and Technology. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the ibstpi® instructional design competency set could be used as a self-report instrument to measure instructional design competencies. For this purpose, we assigned a five-point scale to the ibstpi® competency set and investigated the construct validity of the resulting instrument by administering it to a sample of future professionals. We used a robust method to translate the competency set into Turkish and recruited 820 junior and senior students who were enrolled in a degree program in Computer Education and Instructional Technology in Turkey. The conceptual framework of the competency set was used to develop three models to be tested via a series of Confirmatory Factor Analysis. All three models showed a good fit to the data and factors had above satisfactory internal consistency reliability and convergent validity. Although the factors in three models did not show a perfect discriminant validity, we argue that the instrument can be used to measure instructional design competencies. Discussion and implications of the findings are provided.

While the majority of workplace learning is informal, most organizational resources devoted to learning are allocated to more formal means, such as training. The purpose of this study was to investigate how instructional designers facilitate informal learning in the workplace. Three hundred eighty-five practitioners completed an online survey developed to measure how informal workplace learning is facilitated. In addition, 20 survey respondents participated in follow-up interviews. Findings revealed that practitioners employ a variety of methods to facilitate informal workplace learning. Sharing knowledge, materials, and resources emerged as the most common approach. As proponents of learning, instructional designers, as well as their managers and clients, may leverage the findings of this study to facilitate informal workplace learning, thus increasing performance.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a case study conducted to examine the application of Merrill's First Principles of Instruction ("Educ Technol Res Dev" 50(3):43-59, 2002, "First principles of instruction," Pfeiffer, San Francisco, 2012) to determine how they were implemented during a fast-paced project that required the creation of a large number of online modules. Design and development research (Richey and Klein in "Design and development research," Routledge/Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 2007) was employed to investigate the conditions and factors that impacted the decisions made by a design team including project leads, team leads, and instructional designers. Findings revealed that project requirements, personnel, physical setting, time, designer experience, training and team meetings influenced the use of the First Principles of Instruction.

School counseling lacks clarity. This confusion is the result of competing models and confusing standards, domains, and competencies. This article offers a simplified model of school counseling entitled the "Six 'C' Model" (i.e., Care, Collaboration, Champion, Challenge, Courage, and Commitment). The interactive model is informed by the following contemporary influences: (a) postmodernism, (b) the therapeutic common factors, and (c) innovative educational research. (Contains 1 figure.)

This study examined the effect of type of podcasts and learning styles on speaking, listening, and confidence when college used podcasts for learning Chinese. It focused on college students enrolled in a beginning-level Chinese course at a large university in the southeastern United States. Findings indicated that listening to grammar podcasts helped students to improve their speaking skills as well as their confidence. Results also revealed that visual scores had a significant negative relationship with posttest speaking scores. Implications for the use of podcasts in higher education are provided.

This article focuses on informal learning and its implications for instructional design and performance improvement. The authors begin by sharing a story of how a novice instructional designer employs informal learning strategies in her professional and personal life. Next, they offer a definition of informal learning that encompasses both intentional and incidental learning and accounts for trends in the field such as constructivist design theory and toward using a range of instructional and non-instructional interventions. Numerous examples of informal learning are provided throughout the article, and the benefits of using such strategies to facilitate learning and enhance performance are discussed.

Researchers often experience difficulty as they attempt to prepare journal articles that describe their work. The purpose of this article is to provide researchers in the field of education with a series of suggestions as to how to clearly structure each section of a research manuscript that they intend to submit for publication in a scholarly journal. Suggestions related to the each of the four major sections of a research article--the introduction, method, results and discussion sections--are offered. Examples of how those suggestions have been applied in published research articles are presented.

This paper presents our pedagogy for chemical process safety (CPS) education across the curriculum. Building on a unifying theme of "Conservation of Life" (COL), we have four goals: 1) Make students aware of CPS/COL principles, 2) Promote a culture of safety, 3) Assess student learning, 4) Require minimal resources. We discuss our experience and recommendations for reaching these goals through planning, coordination, identification, and use of existing resources as well as student and faculty accountability.

This exploratory study examined the influence of national and organizational culture on the use of various performance improvement interventions. Data on intervention use were collected from practitioners in the United States and South Asia. Results revealed that orientation programs, organizational communication, instructor-led training, and performance appraisals were among the most used interventions in both the United States and South Asia. Findings also indicated that factors such as organization size, location of headquarters, learning and development budget, and reporting structure are related to the use of interventions. Practitioners in South Asia predominantly had expertise in disciplines such as human resources, while those in the United States had experience in instructional design and human performance technology. These differences may influence the development and implementation of instructional and noninstructional interventions. (Contains 2 tables.)

This paper explores the use of "conservation of life" as a concept and unifying theme for increasing awareness, application, and integration of process safety in chemical engineering education. Students need to think of conservation of mass, conservation of energy, and conservation of life as equally important in engineering design and analysis. By giving them appropriate tools for evaluating and implementing conservation of life principles, we can help them to better understand "what all this safety talk is about," and what their role is in contributing to process safety in the chemical engineering field.

This study investigated the use of scaffolds in problem-based hypermedia. Three hundred and twelve undergraduate students enrolled in a computer literacy course worked in project teams to use a hypermedia PBL program focused on designing a personal computer. The PBL program included content scaffolds, metacognitive scaffolds, or no scaffolds. Results revealed that posttest scores for students who received content scaffolds were significantly higher than those who received metacognitive scaffolds. Type of scaffolds also had a significant impact on student attitudes. Findings have implications for the design and delivery of PBL. Content scaffolds can direct student attention to important information and encourage understanding. However, considerations should be given to the difficulty of the task, the time allotted to solve the problem, and other demands students face in a problem-based, hypermedia environment. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

This study investigated the effects of collaboration mode and group composition during a computer-mediated collaborative (CMC) program. Six intact sections of a computer literacy course were assigned to either a face-to-face or a virtual, online collaboration treatment condition. Groups consisted of homogeneous lower-ability, homogeneous higher-ability, or heterogeneous-ability pairs. The study examined the effects of collaboration mode and group composition on individual posttest performance, group project performance, collaborative interaction behavior, and attitudes towards the instruction. Results indicated that virtual dyads exhibited significantly more questioning behaviors and significantly better project performance than those who collaborated face-to-face. By comparison, students in the face-to-face condition performed significantly better on the individual posttest than those in the virtual online condition. Findings suggest that both virtual and face-to-face collaboration can be effective in achieving learning goals. However, consideration should be given to the collaborative structure of the lesson and the type of task in the design of CMC environments.

This study examined the effects of instructional elements (objectives, information, practice with feedback, and review) on achievement, attitude, and time in a computer-based, multimedia program. Undergraduate college students used the multimedia lesson to learn about artists and their painting styles. Results indicated that practice had a significant effect on achievement while objectives and review did not. Participants who used the program with practice performed significantly better than those who did not receive practice. Student responses to the attitude survey showed that they were sensitive to the presence or absence of the instructional elements investigated in this study. Participants who used the lean program (information only) had the lowest overall attitudes. Results of paired comparison questions on the attitude survey revealed that participants perceived information, practice, and review to be more helpful than objectives. Turning to time, participants who received the full program spent the most amount of time working though the multimedia lesson and those who received the lean program spent the least amount of time. Implications for designing multimedia instruction are discussed. (Contains 4 figures and 4 tables.)

For decades, training has been one of the most common interventions used by organizations to improve the performance of their employees and teach them new ideas and skills. But owing to the cost of developing and delivering training, organizations have adopted alternative ways to enable employee performance while reducing the cost and minimizing the time users spend away from the job. One alternative is electronic performance support systems (EPSS). The present study examined the effect of EPSS and training on user performance, time on task, and time in training. Results revealed that participants receiving only EPSS and those receiving training and EPSS performed significantly better on a tax preparation procedure than participants who received only training. Training-only users also spent significantly more time completing the procedural task than their counterparts in other treatment groups, leading to a negative correlation between time on task and performance. The implications of these findings for the design and development of performance support and training interventions are discussed. (Contains 6 figures and 2 tables.)

Recent research in the areas of human performance technology (HPT), organizational development, and cross-cultural training has suggested the need for developing managerial competencies that are effective in diverse cultural settings. Some competencies such as technical proficiency, knowledge of company systems, adaptability, and the ability to cope have been examined for their suitability in various cultures. However, there have been few efforts to examine the suitability and validity of HPT competencies in cross-cultural settings. This exploratory study investigates the application of HPT competencies across two regions of the world. On the basis of a survey of more than 100 industry professionals, we obtained data indicating the frequency of application of a set of core HPT competencies in the United States and South Asian regions. Findings revealed significant differences between how practitioners in these two regions apply performance analysis, cause analysis, and intervention design and development competencies. Results suggest that cultural differences might be affecting how practitioners in these regions are applying HPT. Possible areas for future studies are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

This study investigated the effects of several elements of instruction (objectives, information, practice, examples and review) when they were combined in a systematic manner. College students enrolled in a computer literacy course used one of six different versions of a computer-based lesson delivered on the web to learn about input, processing, storage and output of a computer. The six versions of the program consisted of (1) a full version that contained information plus objectives, practice with feedback, examples and review, (2) a version without objectives, (3) one without examples, (4) one without practice, (5) one without review and (6) a lean version containing information only. Results indicated participants who used one of the four versions of the computer program that included practice performed significantly better on the posttest and had consistently more positive attitudes than those who did not receive practice. Implications for the development of computer-based instruction are explored.

This study examined how scaffolds and student achievement levels influence inquiry and performance in a problem-based learning environment. The scaffolds were embedded within a hypermedia program that placed students at the center of a problem in which they were trying to become the youngest person to fly around the world in a balloon. One-hundred and eleven seventh grade students enrolled in a science and technology course worked in collaborative groups for a duration of 3 weeks to complete a project that included designing a balloon and a travel plan. Student groups used one of three problem-based, hypermedia programs: (1) a no scaffolding condition that did not provide access to scaffolds, (2) a scaffolding optional condition that provided access to scaffolds, but gave students the choice of whether or not to use them, and (3) a scaffolding required condition required students to complete all available scaffolds. Results revealed that students in the scaffolding optional and scaffolding required conditions performed significantly better than students in the no scaffolding condition on one of the two components of the group project. Results also showed that student achievement levels were significantly related to individual posttest scores; higher-achieving students scored better on the posttest than lower-achieving students. In addition, analyses of group notebooks confirmed qualitative differences between students in the various conditions. Specifically, those in the scaffolding required condition produced more highly organized project notebooks containing a higher percentage of entries directly relevant to the problem. These findings suggest that scaffolds may enhance inquiry and performance, especially when students are required to access and use them.

In this study, we investigated the effect of type of positive interdependence (roles, rewards, roles-plus-rewards, or no structure) and affiliation motives (high vs. low) in an asynchronous, collaborative learning environment. College reentry students worked together in small, fully online discussion groups that lasted for seven days. Results indicated that participants in groups given roles plus rewards interacted with their teammates significantly more than those given rewards only or no-structured-interdependence conditions. A significant positive correlation suggested that participants with higher numbers of interactions attained higher posttest scores. However, no significant differences were found in achievement by type of interdependence or by affiliation motive. Results also revealed that type of interdependence and affiliation motive had a significant impact on student attitudes. Implications for integrating small group work in online higher education settings are discussed.

Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) deliver relevant support information to users while they are performing tasks. The present study examined the effect of different types of EPSS on user performance, attitudes, system use and time on task. Employees at a manufacturing company were asked to complete a procedural software task and received support from either an intrinsic, extrinsic, external performance support system or no system at all. Results revealed significant differences on performance, attitudes and use between several treatment groups. The study suggests that providing any kind of EPSS to support task performance is better than having none at all. In addition, designers can improve user performance, attitudes and use by creating systems that integrate with the primary work interface. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)

The purpose of this article is to provide direction to those entertaining a developmental research project. There are two categories of developmental research, both of which are examined here. The two types vary in terms of the extent to which the conclusions resulting from the research are generalizable or contextually specific. This article describes developmental research in terms of the traditional stages of planning, conducting, and reporting a research project--problem definition, literature reviews, and research procedures. Examples of adapting a literature review to a developmental study are identified. Problem definition procedures encompass focusing on and framing the problem, and identifying the limitations of the research. Research procedures are adapted to developmental studies, particularly with respect to identifying the study's participants, creating a research design, and collecting and analyzing the data. Finally, issues with respect to reporting developmental research are discussed.

The present study is designed to investigate the effects of advisement and informal cooperative learning when students used a multimedia database. Participants were 159 undergraduate students (54 males; 105 females) enrolled in a computer literacy course at a large university in the southwestern United States. The majority of participants were either sophomores or juniors and represented a broad spectrum of majors. The materials used in this study are: (1) multimedia database; (2) task sheet; (3) study guide/notes; and informal cooperative learning guidelines. This study included four treatment groups: (1) Individual--Advisement; (2) Individual--No Advisement; (3) Informal Cooperative Dyad--Advisement; and (4) Informal Cooperative Dyad--No Advisement. A 15-item, short answer paper and pencil posttest worth a total of 20 points was used to measure performance. Results of this study indicated that participants provided with advisement performed significantly better on the posttest than those receiving no advisement. The results of this study have implications for the design and implementation of instruction using multimedia databases. Providing advisement to support students as they identify and interpret relevant resources contained in multimedia databases will enhance the effectiveness of these tools for learning. (Contains 1 table.)

Competency is defined as a set of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enables an individual to effectively perform the activities of a given occupation or job function to the standards expected in employment. Competencies for professionals in the performance improvement field have received considerable attention in recent years. For example, the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) has identified ten standards that are used as a basis for certifying performance technologists. In addition, the competencies for other job roles in the Human Performance Technology (HPT) and training fields have been identified. In this article, the authors discuss the competencies for instructional designers, training managers, and instructors identified by the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (ibstpi). They begin by providing a brief explanation of ibstpi's history, background, and mission, followed by a discussion of how the organization identifies and validates competencies. The authors also provide a list of standards for instructional designers, training managers, and instructors that have been validated by practitioners in all regions of the world. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

The field of instructional design and technology (IDT) evolved during the 1990s to include theories and practices of performance improvement. Some authors have indicated that the goal of our field has shifted from facilitating learning to improving performance; and contemporary definitions of IDT incorporate human performance technology concepts (Reiser, 2002). Furthermore, there is strong empirical support for including these concepts in the curricula of our graduate programs (Fox & Klein, 2002). The purpose of this article is to report the results of a survey conducted to determine performance improvement competencies for graduates of IDT programs. A sample of faculty and practitioners used a web-based survey to rate the importance of HPT skills and knowledge for IDT graduates. Results of the survey can provide guidance to programs seeking to prepare their students for today's workplace and may shed light on which HPT processes and interventions should be emphasized in the curriculum. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study investigated the effects of audio, animation, and spatial ability in a multimedia computer program for high school biology. Participants completed a multimedia program that presented content by way of text or audio with lean text. In addition, several instructional sequences were presented either with static illustrations or animations. The study examined the effects of instructional mode (text vs. audio), illustration mode (static illustration vs. animation), and spatial ability (low vs. high) on practice and posttest achievement, attitude and time. Results indicated that spatial ability was significantly related to practice achievement and attitude. Participants with high spatial ability performed better on the practice items than those with low spatial ability. Participants with low spatial ability responded more positively than those with high spatial ability to attitude items concerning concentration, interest, and amount of invested mental effort. Findings also revealed that participants who received animation spent significantly more time on the program than those who received static illustrations. Implications for the design of multimedia are discussed. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)