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This study aims to test the nomological validity of the People Performance Scales (PPS) using the job demands-resources (JD-R) model. All employees at two large companies in Norway (a governmental agency and a worker's union) were invited to complete the PPS questionnaire electronically. A total of 2,469 respondents completed the questionnaire, resulting in an 87 percent response rate. Data was analyzed Structural Equation Modelling. First, all 15 scales included in the PPS showed excellent internal and construct validity. PPS was also found to have configural-, construct-level metric- and scale-level metric invariance across age groups and genders. Second, findings indicate that the PPS can be used for both research and consultancy based upon the JD-R model, while simultaneously assessing constructs of particular importance in Norwegian and Scandinavian legislation. The PPS represents a short and efficient questionnaire which measures the most relevant working environment constructs in a reliable and distinct way. The questionnaire has great psychometric characteristics and is well suited for use in organizations to measure employees' experience of working environment factors, allowing organizations to identify areas of improvement and to support organizational development.

Background: To provide high-quality and cost-effective person-centred care, organisations need employees who are committed to perform at their best. Employee work engagement, defined as a positive, fulfilling approach to work, is known to correlate favourably with employee wellbeing and performance and with the service climate. Extended understanding about the meaning of work engagement can promote the development of environments that are both conducive to person-centred practices and good places to work. Aim: To explore the meaning of work engagement in the context of person-centred practices in municipal healthcare facilities for older people. Methods: A total of 16 individual interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of registered nurses and nursing assistants working in municipal healthcare facilities for older people in Norway. Data were analysed using a stepwise-deductive-inductive approach. Findings were generated inductively from the themes that emerged in the interviews and were later reflected on in relation to both theory and practice. Findings: Work engagement is manifest at individual and collective levels, involving intrapersonal, interpersonal and social/group components. Engagement is experienced as contributing to employee work capacity and team effectiveness with respect to person-centred processes. Conclusion: At individual, collective and environmental levels, employee engagement facilitates the development of person-centred practices in organisations providing long-term care for older people, to the benefit of residents and staff. Implications for practice: • Work engagement should be recognised as a condition that fosters employees’ ability and willingness to suspend judgment and appreciate the service user’s perspective • Individual-level engagement is contagious, facilitating development of supportive work environments, which, in turn, enables person-centred practices • Engagement should be approached simultaneously as an intrapersonal, interpersonal, and social/group process, with individual- and group-level outcomes

Aim: to design, implement and evaluate a nurse-led capacity building intervention (PromoGOB) for intersectoral action for health at local governments. Design: the programme was based on theories of the policy process and organizational change and facilitated by a nurse developing a health broker role. A complex intervention perspective was adopted in carrying out the study. The intervention was evaluated using a mixed method embedded design. Methods: quantitative component relied on a specific questionnaire. This tool, designed and piloted ad hoc, measured the capacity in terms of knowledge, awareness, resources, skills, and commitment, both at sectoral and government levels. For the qualitative component, semi-structured interviews were conducted. These explored the perceived capacity and feasibility and acceptability issues. The programme was initiated at the end of October 2019, and it lasted a total of 5 weeks. Nineteen individuals representing various sectors at a local government in northern Spain participated in the study. The data analysis was concluded by the end of March 2020. Findings: promoGOB positively influenced participants' capacity for addressing health promotion. Awareness component, intersectoral work and the nurse as health broker were essential in the programme. The necessity of political participation was identified as an issue to be prioritized in future studies. Conclusion: this study highlights the relevance of capacity building at local governments and the role that nurses can play in it. Further work should be undertaken to continue developing Health in All Policies approach at local level. Impact: this study offers a starting point for nurses to get involved in the policy process of health promotion, performing a specific role as health brokers, building capacity at local governments for addressing social determinants of health, and delving into theories and concepts of the Health in All Policies field. University of Navarre Association and Government of Navarra (predoctoral scholarships)

A study of navigational situations involving a small passenger ferry ‘Ole III’ was conducted based on participatory observations in the Husøysund strait in Tønsberg municipality, Norway. The aims were to document the extent to which crossing situations are solved according to navigational rules and practice, and to investigate the number of incidents which could pose a risk for Ole III and its passengers. Because of the high density of private pleasure craft, we expected a rather large number of non-compliance with navigational rules. Observations supported this assumption, and based on the total of 3152 crossings with Ole III where other vessels where present, a total of 279 (8.9%) incidents were considered to involve non-compliance with navigational rules and practice. A total of 165 incidents were caused by the other vessels failing to give way even though it had Ole III on its starboard side. This indicates that, at least in Norway, we may routinely expect pleasure craft to deviate from navigational rules for crossing situations. A number of incidents could partly be explained by a mismatch in understandings of which vessel had the right-of-way. Also, incident risk was higher when Ole III used active control strategies to handle crossing situations (e.g. keeping course and speed) as compared with passive control strategies. A taxonomy of situations based upon intentions is presented together with suggestions for control strategies for small passenger vessels that operate in waters with many pleasure craft.

This study aims to provide framework for considering fidelity in the design of simulator training. Simulator fidelity is often characterised as the level of physical and visual similarity with real work settings, and the importance of simulator fidelity in the creation of learning activities has been extensively debated. Based on a selected literature review and fieldwork on ship simulator training, this study provides a conceptual framework for fidelity requirements in simulator training. This framework is applied to an empirical example from a case of ship simulator training. The study identifies three types of simulator fidelity that might be useful from a trainer’s perspective. By introducing a framework of technical, psychological and interactional fidelity and linking these concepts to different levels of training and targeted learning outcomes, the study demonstrates how the fidelity of the simulation relates to the level of expertise targeted in training. The framework adds to the body of knowledge on simulator training by providing guidelines for the different ways in which simulators can increase professional expertise, without separating the learning activity from cooperative work performance.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background: Norway is internationally known today for its political and socio-economic prioritization of equity. The 2012 Public Health Act (PHA) aimed to further equity in the domain of health by addressing the social gradient in health. The PHA’s main policy measures were (1) delegation to the municipal level of responsibility for identifying and targeting underserved groups and (2) the imposition on municipalities of a “Health in All Policies” (HiAP) approach where local policy-making generally is considered in light of public health impact. In addition, the act recommended municipalities employ a public health coordinator (PHC) and required a development of an overview of their citizens’ health to reveal underserved social segments. This study investigates the relationship between changes in municipal use of HiAP tools (PHC and health overviews) with regard to the PHA implementation and municipal prioritization of fair distribution of social and economic resources among social groups. Methods: Data from two surveys, conducted in 2011 and 2014, were merged with official register data. All Norwegian municipalities were included (N = 428). Descriptive statistics as well as bi- and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed. Results: Thirty-eight percent of the municipalities reported they generally considered fair distribution among social groups in local policy-making, while 70% considered fair distribution in their local health promotion initiatives. Developing health overviews after the PHA’s implementation was positively associated with prioritizing fair distribution in political decision-making (odds ratio [OR] = 2.54; CI: 1.12-5.76), compared to municipalities that had not developed such overviews. However, the employment of PHCs after the implementation was negatively associated with prioritizing fair distribution in local health promotion initiatives (OR = 0.22; CI: 0.05-0.90), compared to municipalities without that position. Conclusion: Development of health overviews — as requested by the PHA — may contribute to prioritization of fair distribution among social groups with regard to the social determinants of health at the local level. Keywords: Equity, HiAP, Public Health Coordinator, Norway, Health Promotion Health promotion at local level in Norway: The use of public health coordinators and health overviews to promote fair distribution among social groups

Norway is internationally known today for its political and socio-economic prioritization of equity. The 2012 Public Health Act (PHA) aimed to further equity in the domain of health by addressing the social gradient in health. The PHA's main policy measures were (1) delegation to the municipal level of responsibility for identifying and targeting underserved groups and (2) the imposition on municipalities of a "Health in All Policies" (HiAP) approach where local policy-making generally is considered in light of public health impact. In addition, the act recommended municipalities employ a public health coordinator (PHC) and required a development of an overview of their citizens' health to reveal underserved social segments. This study investigates the relationship between changes in municipal use of HiAP tools (PHC and health overviews) with regard to the PHA implementation and municipal prioritization of fair distribution of social and economic resources among social groups.Data from two surveys, conducted in 2011 and 2014, were merged with official register data. All Norwegian municipalities were included (N=428). Descriptive statistics as well as bi- and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed.Thirty-eight percent of the municipalities reported they generally considered fair distribution among social groups in local policy-making, while 70% considered fair distribution in their local health promotion initiatives. Developing health overviews after the PHA's implementation was positively associated with prioritizing fair distribution in political decision-making (odds ratio [OR] = 2.54; CI: 1.12-5.76), compared to municipalities that had not developed such overviews. However, the employment of PHCs after the implementation was negatively associated with prioritizing fair distribution in local health promotion initiatives (OR = 0.22; CI: 0.05-0.90), compared to municipalities without that position.Development of health overviews - as requested by the PHA - may contribute to prioritization of fair distribution among social groups with regard to the social determinants of health at the local level.

The increased complexity of socio-technical systems has revealed the limited contributions of existing event-based accident analysis methods on sustainable safety improvements. Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) – constructed upon Systems Theory – deploys a holistic approach to safety and provides broad insights into accident causality via the integration of the analysis from both direct and indirect factors involved. A dedicated STAMP-based analysis is conducted in this paper by taking the recent Sewol ferry tragedy as an example, to illustrate the utility of applying the STAMP-Model to the maritime transportation domain and to stimulate a broader view of accident mechanisms that expands casual analysis beyond immediate physical failures to a systemic view. Some recommendations are developed for continuous improvements and corrective actions to prevent such catastrophic accident from future occurrences.

The maximum satisfiability problem that is known to be nondeterministic polynomial (NP) complete plays a central role problem in many applications in the fields of very large-scale integration (VLSI) computer-aided design, computing theory, artificial intelligence, and defense. Given a set of m clauses and n Boolean variables, the maximum satisfiability problem refers to the task of finding an assignment of values to the variables that maximizes the number of satisfied clauses (or minimizes the number of unsatisfied clauses) In this chapter, a multilevel evolutionary algorithm is proposed for the maximum satisfiability problem. The multilevel process works by grouping the variables defining the problem to form clusters, uses the clusters to define a new problem, and is repeated until the problem size falls below some threshold. The coarsest problem is then given an initial assignment of values to variables and the assignment is successively refined on all the problems starting with the coarsest and ending with the original.

The interaction between autonomous vessels and humans is a problem which has not clearly been addressed. One solution for this is that autonomous vessels implement rules and algorithms that mimics the behaviour of trained seafarers that acts in accordance with the International Maritime Collision Regulations (COLREGS). We suggest a simple algorithm that ’chases’ the tangent point of the Circle of Rejection that is set outside other vessels. The algorithm utilises the same information that would be used by a human navigator—and it uses this information to guide an autonomous vessel in a way that will satisfy COLREG Rule 8 which requires anti-collision manoeuvres to be positive, timely and with regard to good seamanship.

Industrial operators have an important role to play in terms of reducing the probability of accidents by utilizing their awareness and understanding of the system and the situation during normal and abnormal operating conditions. Industrial operators are important barriers against accidents. Distributed Situation Awareness (DSA) has been shown to correlate with positive performance and goal achievement. The role of individual operators as barriers against accidents calls for a greater understanding of DSA in the process industry and industrial plants. Industrial operators must cope with uncertainties with regards to the information they must process in normal and abnormal situations, while working in geographically dispersed locations and with different teams. The significance of DSA during an abnormal situation increases manifold and influences the possible consequences of an accident scenario. Aim of this article is to consider the effect of two distinct training methods on DSA and safety-related performance of industrial operators during an accident scenario. The results show that participants trained with the help of 3D virtual environments (N = 12) were able to maintain better DSA and performed effectively within a simulated scenario as compared to those (N = 12) trained with a conventional training method.

The maritime industry is multinational and multicultural. Understanding which leadership skills that are effective in such environments is necessary to be a successful leader. Work experience in multinational companies will give a different insight into which management practices are seen as desirable for future maritime leaders within a global industry. According to trait theories there are properties that can be trained and some that are linked to personality, which are not easily trainable. Since leadership skills are a combination of both trainable and not so trainable skills, it is necessary to understand what types of skills are seen as endorsed, and not endorsed by the future maritime managers. The present paper shows results from a questionnaire study using the GLOBE Leadership questionnaire where 52 master of maritime management students (i.e. maritime managers of the future) rates 112 different leadership skills according to which degree these skills support outstanding leadership or not. The results show which leadership skills the maritime leaders of the future believe will support outstanding leadership. Contrasts between participant with and without work experience form multinational corporations will be shown -- giving an indication of how the perception of leadership is changed through work experience in a multi-cultural context. The result will give an insight in how future management practices should be. Knowledge of the universally endorsed maritime leadership skills can be used as a guideline in the recruitment process for maritime managers.

Investigations of accidents occurring in complex sociotechnical systems have found that communication and coordination among system elements are major contributing factors. The distributed situation awareness of a system is inherently dependent on the level of interaction between system elements. Previous studies have found that the distributed situational relevance of team communication is highly correlated with team performance. This study investigated the impact of the combination of both relevance and situational correctness of communication during simulated high-speed craft navigation. A natural experiment with navigation in the inner Oslo Fjord was performed with a three-person team in a maritime desktop simulator. Participants were required to communicate verbally to ensure safe and efficient navigation. All statements communicated by the participants during the experiment was rated for relevance (relevant/irrelevant) and for situational correctness (correct or incorrect) and these scores was combined to form a Communication score ranging from +1 (good) to -1 (bad). Measures of the relevancy, correctness and the combined communication score were then correlated with the navigational team performance (measured as cross-track error). Findings indicate surprisingly that the relevance of communication (irrespective of its correctness) did not have any relationship to navigational performance ( r ≈ 0) while the ratio of wrong communication showed a small to moderate positive correlation ( r = .237) to cross-track error. Most interestingly the combined communication score had a moderately large negative correlation with cross-track error ( r = -.349) thus indicating that at least for dynamic navigation tasks it is not enough to only look on the relevance of communication – but that also the situational correctness of information must be measured.

This paper presents the outcome of a pre-project that resulted in an initial version (prototype) of an automated assessment algorithm for a specific maritime operation. The prototype is based on identified control requirements that human operators must meet to conduct safe navigation. Current assessment methods of navigation in simulators involve subject matter experts, whose evaluations unfortunately have some limitations related to reproducibility and consistency. Automated assessment algorithms may address these limitations. For a prototype, our algorithm had a large correlation with evaluations performed by subject matter experts in assessment of navigation routes. The results indicate that further research in automated assessment of maritime navigation has merit. The algorithm can be a stepping stone in developing a consistent, unbiased, and transparent assessment module for evaluating maritime navigation performance.

Shared mental models, measured as similar perceptions and understandings of the components of a work task or an operative environment, is a key characteristic for high performing teams. Identifying and addressing differences in mental models may help enhance teamwork, and can serve as a frame for the improvement of human‐centered information and communication systems. This paper has been written as part of the SESAME Straits project, a testbed within the e‐Navigation framework. It examines similarities and differences in mental models between Deck Officers working aboard ships and Vessel Traffic Service Officers working ashore. Data was compared the participants´ perception of 12 challenging traffic situations in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. A total of 189 respondents participated by means of an electronic survey. Findings show that Deck and Vessel Traffic Officers do have a large degree of shared mental models, but that there also are significant differences. In particular, there are large ship‐shore differences in perceptions of the impact on local ship traffic on safety and efficiency. The second and third situation of large difference was delayed or reduced availability of port services, and challenging weather conditions. Implications are that future development of ship‐shore collaborative systems should specifically explore and address the issue of local ship traffic, and to find ways to integrate information about availability and timing of port services and of difficult weather situations.

Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) is a simple meta-heuristic that systematically changes the size and type of neighborhood during the search process in order to escape from local optima. In this paper, a variable-neighborhood-genetic-based-algorithm is proposed for the maximum satisfiability problem (MAX-SAT). Most of the work published earlier on VNS starts from the first neighborhood and moves on to higher neighborhoods without controlling and adapting the ordering of neighborhood structures. The order in which the neighborhood structures have been proposed in this work enables the genetic algorithm with a better mechanism for performing diversification and intensification. A set of benchmark problem instances is used to compare the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm against the standard genetic algorithm. This paper reports promising results when the proposed hybrid algorithm is compared with state-of-the art solvers.

While female participation in work places has increased over the last decades, women only make up 1–2 % of the 1.25 million seafarers worldwide. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Labor Organizations are making a concerted effort to promote women into the maritime industry. Still, there are barriers in the maritime industry that hinder female employment, particularly in leadership positions. The primary aim of the paper is to investigate whether there is a significant difference in implicit beliefs about leadership between males and females. In addition to this, it seeks to evaluate whether the aforementioned difference is within the context of masculine versus neutral work domains. The findings indicated that employees in the maritime industry might have lower expectations towards female leaders thereby indicating the presence of gender bias in the evaluation of leaders.

Modelling the interdependencies among the nine common performance conditions (CPCs) in Cognitive Reliability Error Analysis Method (CREAM) stimulates the use of Bayesian Networks (BNs) in Human Reliability Analysis (HRA). However, subjective probability elicitation for a BN is often a daunting and complex task. To create conditional probability values for each given variable in a BN requires a high degree of knowledge and engineering effort, often from a group of domain experts. This paper presents a new hybrid approach for combining an ER algorithm with BNs to enable HRA under incomplete data. The kernel of this approach is to develop the best and the worst possible conditional degrees of belief of the nodes influencing Contextual Control Model Controlling Modes (COCOM-CMs) when using BNs to model human error quantification in CREAM. The findings on the hybrid evidential reasoning and BN model can effectively facilitate human failure probability analysis in CREAM in specific and decision making under uncertainty in general.

This article investigates the relationship between the control situation framework, as presented by Bjorkli et al. (Cogn Technol Work 9:67–80, 2007), and observed operator action and communication in high-speed craft operation in the Norwegian Royal Navy. The reported data include two series of events during sailing in the Norwegian archipelago where uncertainty of ship position, challenges of manoeuvring and navigation strategies are addressed. The results indicate that the navigators perform actions and communicate in accordance with the key features of the control situation framework, and thus adapt to the interrelation between control possibilities and control requirements. The navigators were guided by explicit knowledge of the functional characteristics of psychical and temporal dynamics, which were actualized in manoeuvring. It indicates that the control situation framework can be used to describe the models the operators use.

Current in-car audio systems are part of a demanding driver-vehicle interaction that is responsible for a high number of traffic accidents. This paper addresses this issue and describes some common problems regarding current in-car audio systems. A project is presented which was initiated to explore alternative interfaces using touch-based interaction, resulting in a working prototype, tested on 25 people. The prototype demonstrates how the focus on touch interaction and the change of position and interface controls, without the use of any expensive or advanced technology, can significantly alter the drivers' operation of the in-car audio system. The results are encouraging.

Tangible objects on capacitive multi-touch surfaces are usually only detected while the user is touching them. When the user lets go of such a tangible, the system cannot distinguish whether the user just released the tangible, or picked it up and removed it from the surface. We introduce PERCs, persistent capacitive tangibles that "know" whether they are currently on a capacitive touch surface or not. This is achieved by adding a small field sensor to the tangible to detect the touch screen's own, weak electromagnetic touch detection probing signal. Thus, unlike previous designs, PERCs do not get filtered out over time by the adaptive signal filters of the touch screen. We provide a technical overview of the theory be- hind PERCs and our prototype construction, and we evaluate detection rates, timing performance, and positional and angular accuracy for PERCs on a variety of unmodified, commercially available multi-touch devices.Through their affordable circuitry and high accuracy, PERCs open up the potential for a variety of new applications that use tangibles on today's ubiquitous multi-touch devices.

Mutual capacitance touch screens are responsible for detecting billions of human fingers touching them around the world every day. Being able to use such screens for detection of ungrounded objects as well, would make it easier develop compatible tangible user interface objects that could extend the functionality of the screens. We present results from both simulations and experiments showing that the sensing principle used in these screens are able to detect ungrounded objects.

The control situation framework presented by Petersen (Cogn Technol Work 6(4):266–274, 2004) is elaborated upon in the context of military high-speed craft navigation. An observational study was done on a military navigational exercise in Indre Folda, a stretch of particularly demanding confined waters in Norway. The concept of control strategies is presented as a term related to how navigators choose to take out the control possibilities present in the system. Control actions are viewed as actions that fix the control demands and control possibilities over longer time-scales. Control strategies are different from control actions in that they continuously alter the control demands and control possibilities through its execution.

Tangibles on interactive surfaces enable users to physically manipulate digital content by placing, manipulating, or removing a tangible object. However, the information whether and how a user grasps these objects has not been mapped out for tangibles on interactive surfaces so far. Based on Buxton's Three-State Model for graphical input, we present an interaction model that describes input on tangibles that are aware of the user's grasp. We present two examples showing how the user benefits from this extended interaction model. Furthermore, we show how the interaction with other existing tangibles for interactive tabletops can be modeled.

It is highly desirable that women and men have the same access to maritime training and work aboard ships. Gender stereotypes affect judgment of competence in women and men differently. This study investigated female and male maritime officers’ ability to evaluate their leadership skills. A 360° leader evaluation survey obtained both self-assessments and co-worker assessments of maritime officers’ leadership (both positive and negative) skills, using the MLQ-5X leadership questionnaire. Results from 17 female and 30 male maritime officers shows an interaction between gender and errors in self-evaluation (tendency to over-estimate or under-estimate) of leadership skills. Female leaders tended to underrate their actual leadership skills, while male maritime officers tended to overrate their leadership skills relative to the evaluations of their co-workers. For negative leadership skills, female maritime officers over-estimated the level of negative leadership skill they had, while male leaders under-estimated their level of negative leadership skills. For positive leadership skills, the opposite relation was present (women under-estimated and men over-estimated the level of positive leadership skills). These results point—for the first time—to a gender difference in the evaluation of leadership skills in the maritime domain. An overtly critical attitude towards one’s own leadership skills might be a factor in explaining why many women choose to abstain from high-status positions in the maritime industry. Maritime leadership training can be made more inclusive by focusing on gender differences in the (self)-evaluation of leadership skills.

Capacitive multi-touch displays are designed to detect touches from fingers that often change the location. This is quite the opposite of our goal: detect passive objects placed on them. In fact, these systems usually contain filters to actively reject such inactive input data. We present a technical analysis of this problem and introduce Passive Untouched Capacitive Widgets (PUCs). Unlike previous approaches, PUCs do not require power, they can be made entirely transparent, and they do not require internal electrical or software modifications. Most importantly they are detected reliably even when no user is touching them.

Capacitive multi-touch displays are not designed to detect passive objects placed on them-in fact, these systems usually contain filters to actively reject such touch data. We present a technical analysis of this problem and introduce Passive Untouched Capacitive Widgets (PUCs). Unlike previous approaches, PUCs do not require power, they can be made entirely transparent, they are detected reliably even when no user is touching them, and they do not require internal electrical or software modifications of the touch display or its driver. We show the results from testing PUCs on 17 different off-the-shelf capacitive touch display models, and provide initial technical design recommendations.

Human operators are required to respond to alarms in normal conditions, and also to find solutions to unexpected situations in real time. The aim of this study is to increase the knowledge of human responses to alarms in the context of occupational situations. It describes how humans contribute to accidents, and pays special attention to the assurance of process safety assurance, which is in part realized by timely reactions to system alarms. An experiment involving an operator´s reaction times to alarm signals was undertaken to investigate whether there are differential responses to visual as opposed to auditory alarms. The findings in the research show that visual alarm indicators are perceived faster than auditory signals. Furthermore, there was a significant negative correlation between the number of errors and reaction time, indicating an individual difference in error-proneness when reacting to visual alarms in a supervisory task. Operadores humanos responden a alarmas en condiciones normales y también en situaciones inesperadas y anormales en tiempo real. El objetivo de este estudio consiste en aumentar el conocimiento de las reacciones humanas a alarmas en el ámbito laboral. Describe como los humanos pueden contribuir a accidentes y presta atención a la seguridad del proceso que se efectúa en el tiempo de reacción a las alarmas de sistema. Este experimento fue ejecutado para investigar si hay diferencias en respuestas diferenciales a alarmas visuales comparándolas a alarmas auditivas. Los resultados indican que las alarmas visuales son percibidas de manera más eficiente que las alarmas auditivas. Incluso, se pudo ver una correlación negativa entre la cantidad de errores y el tiempo de reacción, lo que indica una diferencia individual en su disposición a errores cuando reaccionan a alarmas visuales en operaciones de supervisión.

The scientific basis for ergonomics recommendations for controls has usually not been related to active goal-directed use. The present experiment tests how different knob sizes and torques affect operator performance. The task employed is to control a pointer by the use of a control knob, and is as such an experimentally defined goal-directed task relevant to machine systems in general. Duration of use, error associated with use (overshooting of the goal area) and movement reproduction were used as performance measures. Significant differences between knob sizes were found for movement reproduction. High torques led to less overshooting as opposed to low torques. The results from duration of use showed a tendency that the differences between knob sizes were reduced from the first iteration to the second iteration. The present results indicate that the ergonomically recommended ranges of knob sizes might differently affect operator performance.

With the development of technological innovation, many industries such as process and maritime industries constitute more complex automated systems, dedicated operating conditions, multilevel interconnections, as well as human-machine and human-human interactions. The actions and decisions made by operators and seafarers affect the safety and productivity of these systems. It is well known that around 60-80% of the accidents are attributed to human error (directly or indirectly). Generally, each operator or seafarer is must undergo training before starting their real jobs. In recent decades, emphasis on operator training has increased – resulting in advance training simulators with several features like immersivity, stereoscopic sounds, hydraulics, and even use of different odors. However, the design of training methodology can have a significant impact on the skill acquisition of trainees. The growth of integration of technology in existing systems as well as newer systems is much higher than that of improvement in training methods. Unfortunately, there are few studies linking the training needs and the real-world demands on operators, revealing a significant research gap to fulfill.In socio-complex systems, it is necessary to consider various aspects in the training methodology, which can facilitate the operators/seafarers to handle normal and abnormal scenarios adequately. This paper provides a background of current training methods through analyzing the process- and maritime industries as illustrative examples, highlighting the limitations associated with each of different perspectives (technical, psychological and organizational) to propose an training syllabus that allows for learning by experience and interaction with scenarios of different complexity. It consists of a three-stage hierarchy with increasing demands concerning technical and relational complexity and time pressure. The training is centered on handling real-time operations with increasing complexity starting from basic components of the process, advancing to real-time operations, and reaching high technical and relational complexity that needs to be handled in situations with limited time and uncertainty in data. The challenges that arise in team-working tasks are also considered in the conceptualization of the training syllabus. The proposed training syllabus includes training content, objectives and performance evaluation criteria. The systematic methodology of performance evaluation will allow practitioners to obtain transparent, unbiased and consistent certification of trainees.