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Previous research has demonstrated a need for contextual fit when implementing behavior supports in high schools (Flannery et al., "The High School Journal," "96"(4), 267-282, 2013; Flannery & Kato, "Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth," "61"(1), 69-79, 2017). As high schools move beyond the implementation of Tier 1 and begin to implement Tiers 2 and 3, school implementation teams must identify effective interventions that fit the high school context. The current study assessed whether Check-In Check-Out (CICO; Hawken et al., "Responding to problem behavior in schools: The check-in, check-out intervention" (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press, 2021), with strategic contextual adaptations, could be implemented with fidelity and whether high daily implementation fidelity was related to student behavior performance. Teacher feedback quality was also explored. Results showed high fidelity implementation at the systems and procedural level for all participants and a significant, small correlation between procedural fidelity and daily points earned. [This is the online version of an article published in "Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth."]

One core feature of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support (PBIS) is a systems-level teaming process for coordinating staff implementation of evidence-based practices and monitoring student progress across all three tiers. Prior research has shown schools that report regular teaming and team-based data use are more likely to successfully adopt and sustain implementation of multi-tiered systems of behavior support. However, more research is currently needed to better understand the various teaming configurations, structures, and practices commonly used by PBIS teams in typical schools, particularly at advanced tiers. For the current study, members of school and district PBIS teams representing 718 schools were surveyed to better understand (a) teaming configurations and practices currently being used in schools implementing PBIS, and (b) common interventions that PBIS teams report implementing at Tiers 2 and 3. Survey findings are discussed, along with implementations of those results for future research and practice in applied settings. [This is the online first version of an article published in "Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions."]

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine patterns in implementation of Tier 2 and 3 school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) systems to identify timings of installation that led to higher implementation of advanced tiers. Extant data from 776 schools in 27 states reporting on the first three years of Tier 2 implementation and 359 schools in 23 states reporting on the first year of Tier 3 implementation were analyzed. Using structural equation modeling, we found that higher Tier 1 implementation predicted subsequent Tier 2 and Tier 3 implementation. In addition, waiting two or three years after initial Tier 1 implementation to launch Tier 2 systems predicted hither initial Tier 2 implementation (compared to implementing the next year). Last, we found that launching Tier 3 systems after Tier 2 systems, compared to launching both tiers simultaneously, predicted higher Tier 2 implementation in the second and third year, so long as Tier 3 systems were launched within three years of Tier 2 systems. These findings provide empirical guidance for when to launch Tier 2 and 3 systems; however, we emphasize that delays in launching advanced systems should not equate to delays in more intensive supports for students. [This paper will be published in "Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions."]

To identify the most effective strategies for implementing and sustaining Tier 2 and 3 behavior support systems, a measure of general and tier-specific factors hypothesized to predict sustained implementation is needed. To address this need, we conducted two studies examining the construct validity of the "Advanced Level Tier Interventions Treatment Utilization and Durability Evaluation" (ALTITUDE) measure: one assessing the content aspects of construct validity (Study 1) and one assessing the structural and external aspects of construct validity (Study 2). In Study 1, participants included an expert panel of 26 members who provided iterative feedback during measure development. The results showed strong content representativeness (content validity index = 0.93) for assessing elements indicating sustainability. In Study 2, participants were school personnel from 646 schools who completed the measure. The results showed model fit was good for both a three-factor correlated model (CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.05) and Bifactors S-01 model with correlated Tier 2 and Tier 3 specific residual factors (CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.05). In addition, ALTITUDE latent factors were found to have both convergent and discriminant evidence in relation to concurrent fidelity of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) implementation at tiers 1, 2, and 3. This construct validity evidence will support the use of the ALTITUDE in identifying the strongest tier-general and tier-specific predictors of sustained implementation of Tier 2 and 3 behavior support systems. [This paper was published in "Journal of School Psychology" v85 p140-154 2021.]

Even when schools are implementing Tier 1 systems and practices with high fidelity, some students need more targeted and systematic support. Tier 2 practices provide students with an additional layer of rapid and efficient behavior support. However, school teams will need to regularly measure the fidelity of both core features of these Tier 2 practices and the Tier 2 systems supporting those practices. This brief describes the core features of Tier 2 systems and practices and provides examples of researcher-developed measures used to assess them.

Even when schools are implementing Tier 1 systems and practices with high fidelity, some students need more targeted and systematic support. Tier 2 practices provide students with an additional layer of rapid and efficient behavior support. However, school teams will need to regularly measure the fidelity of both core features of these Tier 2 practices and the Tier 2 systems supporting those practices. This brief describes the core features of Tier 2 systems and practices and provides examples of researcher-developed measures used to assess them. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED627151.]

This cross-sectional study analyzed data from 364,143 students in 492 high schools who completed the Georgia School Climate Survey during the 2017-18 school year. Through latent profile analysis, we identified that student perceptions of school climate could be classified into three distinct profiles, including positive, moderate, and negative climate. Using multinomial logistic regression, we then identified school and student characteristics that predicted student classification in the student profiles using the total sample and subsamples by race/ethnicity. Among the key results, we found that most of the school characteristics (e.g., percent of students receiving free or reduced lunch, schools with higher percentages of minoritized students) predicting classification in the negative and positive school climate profiles were different for White students compared to minoritized students. For example, Black students in primarily non-White schools were more likely to view school climate positively, whereas the opposite was the case for White students. We also found that Black and Other (e.g., multiracial) students were more likely to be classified in the negative school climate profile and less likely to be classified in the positive school climate profile compared to White students. In contrast, Latino/a/e students were more likely to be classified in the positive school climate profile and less likely to be classified in the negative school climate profile. Implications for research and practice are discussed. [This paper will be published in "School Psychology."]

There is a dearth of research examining school and district factors associated with the abandonment of evidence-based practice in schools. In this mixed-methods study, we surveyed 23 school personnel working with 30 schools that abandoned and then readopted school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS). Our aims were to identify critical features abandoned and perceived reasons for abandonment and readoption of SWPBIS practices. SWPBIS features most often abandoned included data-based decision making and school-wide acknowledgement systems. Lack of staff buy-in was the most commonly reported reason for abandonment, and a new school administrator was the most commonly reported reason for readoption. Implications for research and how schools could safeguard against abandonment of evidence-based practices are discussed. [This is the advance online version of a paper published in "Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions" (EJ1244498).]

This evaluation brief identifies the average time between initial PBIS training at each tier and identifies criteria state-level leadership teams use to determine readiness for Tier 2 and 3 training. The sample includes 2,488 U.S. schools across five states trained between the 2005-06 and 2018-19 school years. Findings indicate that the average time between Tier 2 and 3 training was shorter compared to Tier 1 and Tier 2. In addition, state-level leadership teams used a variety of policies and procedures for determining school readiness for training at Tiers 2 and 3.

Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) is an effective and widely used Tier 2 behavior program in elementary and middle schools. This article describes a pilot study focused on examining the impact and usability of an adapted CICO program in a high school. We used a single-case multiple baseline design across five 9th grade students to evaluate the effects of the program on student academic engagement and disruption/non-compliance. In addition, we administered social validity questionnaires to school personnel and students to assess the usability of the program. Findings were mixed in terms of impact on student behaviors. Both school personnel and students found the program useable. Based on these findings, we discuss limitations and offer recommendations for how high school personnel could use CICO to support students at-risk of school failure.

District leadership teams perform key roles in building the systems to support schools in the implementation of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). However, there is a lack of measures for assessment and progress monitoring specific to district PBIS systems. To address this gap, we evaluated the validity of a measure of implementation of district PBIS systems, the "District Systems Fidelity Inventory" (DSFI). Using 183 school districts and 760 schools implementing PBIS, we found the DSFI to have good evidence of structural validity for measuring nine aspects of district systems (Leadership Teaming, Stakeholder Engagement, Funding and Alignment, Policy, Workforce Capacity, Training, Coaching, Evaluation, and Local Implementation Demonstrations). We also found DSFI subscales to be moderately related to school-level PBIS implementation fidelity, providing evidence of convergent validity. We describe how leadership teams can use the DSFI to improve PBIS implementation and student outcomes. [This paper will be published in "Remedial and Special Education."]

Recent research in implementation science has focused on identifying factors that predict adoption of evidence-based practices in schools. Less attention has focused on examining the adoption of practices within districts. This study included a sequential cohort of 552 districts in 25 U.S. states adopting an evidence-based framework, school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS). We examined schools within districts reporting on PBIS fidelity during their first five years of PBIS initiatives. Latent change score and multi-level growth modeling were used to examine and predict the percent of district adoption of PBIS over time. Results showed a significant increase in the rate of district adoption over the first 4 years of the initiative, with a decrease in growth between years 4 and 5. District size, proportion of students receiving free or reduced lunch, and districts located in cities and towns were found to be significant predictors of the percent of schools adopting PBIS. Implications for future implementation research and strategies for increasing the adoption of PBIS are discussed. [This paper was published in "Journal of School Psychology" v76 p159-167 2019.]

Although high school graduation rates are improving, a large number of students are still not successful. Research has documented that 9th grade is a pivotal year in determining whether a student will graduate or drop out. The purpose of this randomized controlled trial was to assess the effects of a Tier 1 intervention model (Freshmen Success) for 9th graders to increase school engagement, attendance, credits earned, and grade point average (GPA). This study included 1,588 students in 9th grade across four comprehensive high schools. Treatment schools implemented the Freshmen Success components: a 9th grade Leadership Team, a curriculum, and support from Peer Navigators. Control schools continued business as usual. Results showed statistically significant and educationally meaningful effects on student motivation, engagement and attendance, and a moderate-to-large effect for credits earned; however, there was no significant effect found for GPA. Impact and Implications Statement: This study demonstrates that the FS model, when implemented with fidelity, increased 9th grade student engagement, attendance, and credits earned. However, the intervention was not associated with significant improvements in GPA [The paper will be published in "School Psychology."]

In this 3-year prospective study, we tested the extent to which school-, practice-, and district-level variables predicted sustained implementation for schools in various stages of implementation of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) Tier 1 (universal) systems. Staff from 860 schools in 14 U.S. states completed a research-validated measure of factors associated with sustained implementation of school interventions during Year 1 of this study. Analyses included multi-group structural equation modeling of school and district implementation fidelity data. Results indicated that adequate implementation fidelity and better Team Use of Data for decision making in Study Year 1 were the strongest predictors of sustained implementation in Year 3. In addition, the number of other schools in the district adopting SWPBIS was a similarly strong predictor. A critical mass of schools implementing was also predictive, especially for schools earlier in implementation. School characteristics were not predictive, except for grade levels served, which was an inconsistent predictor by stage. [This paper was published in "Educational Researcher" v47 n5 p307-316 2018 (EJ1185017).]

Young students starting school for the first time (e.g., kindergarteners) often benefit from more than typical intensity of behavioral support. Learning new social expectations, routines, and interaction patterns can be daunting. This is an important concern for schools implementing positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS). Learning a small set of school-wide expectations during the first two weeks of the school year is a core feature of PBIS (Horner & Sugai, 2015). For a kindergarten or first grade student new to school, this process may be either an easy transition or a shift from their typical environment. The basic message of this brief is that elementary schools using PBIS and committed to success for the full range of students in their school will want to consider allocating extra personnel and support during the first month of the school year to young students new to the school. This approach is based on regularly monitoring office discipline referrals, or class exclusion patterns by grade level, and then (a) using data for on-going problem solving and support, (b) shifting the start-of-the-year instruction of behavioral expectations and behavioral routines for kindergarten and first grade students to smaller groups (5-7) where shorter training sessions with increased opportunities for student response and immediate adult feedback are easier, and (c) identify and prioritize students who may need even more support to be successful.

School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SW-PBIS) is an evidence-based, multi-tiered framework designed to support all students across all school settings. The implementation of SW-PBIS is associated with improved student outcomes across elementary, middle, and high schools. For high schools especially, the implementation of SW-PBIS is associated with reductions in student dropouts, office discipline referrals, the numbers of students needing more intensive supports, as well as increased student attendance. Although the number of schools adopting SW-PBIS continues to increase in the U.S., the rates of high schools adopting SW-PBIS is slower compared to elementary schools. High schools represent approximately 34% of all schools in the US, but only 7% of those implement SW-PBIS. Out of all schools implementing SW-PBIS, only 13% of those are high schools. Recent research suggests that the latency between initial training and reaching adequate SW-PBIS implementing fidelity is longer on average for high schools, compared to both elementary and middle schools. To increase the number of high schools adopting SW-PBIS and implementing to fidelity, more attention is needed to identifying specific implementation components that are likely to be challenging for high school staff to implement. Therefore, the purpose of this brief is to summarize patterns in SW-PBIS implementation fidelity in 996 high schools across 31 U.S. states. The authors specially aimed to evaluate how high schools are implementing the components of SW-PBIS, and identify implementation strengths and needs and examined the following research question: What are the patterns of Tier I SW-PBIS implementation for high schools at low fidelity, partial fidelity, and high fidelity?

School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) is an evidence-based framework that provides a continuum of supports for students across multiple tiers (Tiers 1, 2, and 3). The implementation of SWPBIS is associated with improvements in student behavior, academic outcomes, and school climate (Bradshaw, Koth, Bevans, Ialongo, & Leaf, 2008; Bradshaw, Mitchell, & Leaf, 2010). SWPBIS relies on school planning teams regularly assessing fidelity of implementation to ensure the critical features of SWPBIS are implemented as recommended to achieve meaningful outcomes.

Check In Check Out (CICO) is one of the most empirically supported Tier 2 behavior interventions for students who require additional supports to experience success. CICO incorporates regular performance feedback and adult interaction throughout the day in alignment with school-wide expectations. Performance feedback includes both reinforcing and corrective functions and is provided several times throughout the day so that the student has an opportunity to adjust behavior for the next check-in period. Interactions between the student and adult are designed to be efficient, structured, positive, and consistent. Increasing positive student-adult interactions has been linked to improved positive adult-child relationships and may lead to improved student engagement, attendance, and work completion. Despite the benefits (e.g., inexpensive, effective), implementing and monitoring CICO in a systematic manner can be challenging. Building efficient and sustainable Tier 2 systems that can adequately support up to 15% of the student population requires a significant investment at the front end of the adoption process (e.g., staff, time allocation). Given that CICO is the most commonly implemented Tier 2 intervention, enrollment in CICO may be one indicator of a school or other agency's capacity to implement the intervention for up to 15% of students. Due to the lack of peer-reviewed research documenting the extent to which schools are providing CICO to proportions of students that match theoretical distributions (i.e., 5 to 15%), there is a need to develop an understanding of current patterns of CICO enrollment and its potential impact on intervention fidelity and effectiveness. A descriptive study investigating patterns of CICO use in schools was conducted by analyzing a multi-state database from CICO-SWIS, a subscription-based application that schools purchase to enter and track CICO data. The specific questions examined in this study were: (1) What are patterns of use of CICO in schools?; and (2) What variables predict the percent of students receiving CICO in schools?