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Tazarotene is a widely prescribed topical retinoid for acne vulgaris and plaque psoriasis and is associated with skin irritation, dryness, flaking, and photosensitivity. In vitro permeation of tazarotene was studied across the dermatomed human and full-thickness porcine skin. The conversion of tazarotene to the active form tazarotenic acid was studied in various skin models. Tazarotene-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared using the nanoprecipitation technique to target skin and hair follicles effectively. The effect of formulation and processing variables on nanoparticle properties, such as particle size and drug loading, was investigated. The optimized nanoparticle batches with particle size <500 µm were characterized further for FT-IR analysis, which indicated no interactions between tazarotene and PLGA. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed uniform, spherical, and non-agglomerated nanoparticles. In vitro release study using a dialysis membrane indicated a sustained release of 40-70 % for different batches over 36 h, following a diffusion-based release mechanism based on the Higuchi model. In vitro permeation testing (IVPT) in full-thickness porcine skin showed significantly enhanced follicular and skin delivery from nanoparticles compared to solution. The presence of tazarotenic acid in the skin from tazarotene nanoparticles indicated the effectiveness of nanoparticle formulations in retaining bioconversion ability and targeting follicular delivery., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This research presents the efficacy of polymeric microneedles in improving the transdermal permeation of methotrexate across human skin. These microneedles were fabricated from PLGA Expansorb ® 50-2A and 50-8A and subjected to comprehensive characterization via scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and mechanical analysis. We developed and assessed a methotrexate hydrogel for physicochemical and rheological properties. Dye binding, histological examinations, and assessments of skin integrity demonstrated the effective microporation of the skin by PLGA microneedles. We measured the dimensions of microchannels in the skin using scanning electron microscopy, pore uniformity analysis, and confocal microscopy. The skin permeation and disposition of methotrexate were researched in vitro. PLGA 50-8A microneedles appeared significantly longer, sharper, and more mechanically uniform than PLGA 50-2A needles. PLGA 50-8A needles generated substantially more microchannels, as well as deeper, larger, and more uniform channels in the skin than PLGA 50-2A needles. Microneedle insertion substantially reduced skin electrical resistance, accompanied by an elevation in transepidermal water loss values. PLGA 50-8A microneedle treatment provided a significantly higher cumulative delivery, flux, diffusion coefficient, permeability coefficient, and predicted steady-state plasma concentration; however, there was a shorter lag time than for PLGA 50-2A needles, base-treated, and untreated groups ( p < 0.05). Conclusively, skin microporation using polymeric microneedles significantly improved the transdermal delivery of methotrexate.

Hot melt extrusion (HME) is a common manufacturing process used in the pharmaceutical industry to improve the solubility of poorly soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). The goal is to create an amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) where the amorphous form of the API is stabilized within a polymer matrix. Traditionally, the development of pharmaceutically approved polymers has focused on requirements such as thermal properties, solubility, drug-polymer interactions, and biocompatibility. The mechanical properties of the material have often been neglected in the design of new polymers. However, new downstream methods require more flexible polymers or suitable plasticizer polymer combinations. In this study, two grades of the polymer polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), which is already established for HME, are investigated in terms of their mechanical, rheological, and thermal properties. The mechanical properties of the extruded filaments were tested by the three-point bending test. The rheological behavior was analyzed by oscillating plate measurements. Thermal analysis was performed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In addition, the solid and liquid plasticizers mannitol, sorbitol, triacetin, triethyl citrate, polyethylene glycol, and glycerol were evaluated for use with PVA and their impact on the polymer properties was elaborated. Finally, the effects of the plasticizers are compared to each other, and the correlations are analyzed statistically using principal component analysis (PCA). Thereby, a clear ranking of the plasticizer effects was established, and a deeper understanding of the polymer-plasticizer interactions was created., Competing Interests: Florian Hess and Thomas Kipping were employed by Merck Life Science KGaA. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) enable formulations to improve the solubility of poorly soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The amorphous state is reached through the disruption of the crystalline lattice of an API resulting in an increased apparent solubility with faster disintegration. Nevertheless, this form is characterized by a high-energy state which is prone to re-crystallization. To ensure a stable ASD, excipients, e.g., polymers that form a matrix in which an API is dispersed, are used. The applicable polymer range is usually linked to their solubility in the respective solvent, therefore limiting the use of hydrophilic polymers. In this work, we show the applicability of the hydrophilic polymer, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), in spray-dried solid dispersions. Using a three-fluid nozzle approach, this polymer can be used to generate ASDs with a targeted dissolution profile that is characterized by a prominent spring and desired parachute effect showing both supersaturation and crystallization inhibition. For this purpose, the polymer was tested in formulations containing the weakly basic drug, ketoconazole, and the acidic drug, indomethacin, both classified as Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BSC) class II drugs, as well as the weakly basic drug ritonavir classified as BCS IV. Furthermore, ritonavir was used to show the enhanced drug-loading capacity of PVA derived from the advantageous viscosity profile that makes the polymer an interesting candidate for spray drying applications.

Large batches of placebo and drug-loaded solid dosage forms were successfully fabricated using selective laser sintering (SLS) 3D printing in this study. The tablet batches were prepared using either copovidone (N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone and vinyl acetate, PVP/VA) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and activated carbon (AC) as radiation absorbent, which was added to improve the sintering of the polymer. The physical properties of the dosage forms were evaluated at different pigment concentrations (i.e., 0.5 and 1.0 wt%) and at different laser energy inputs. The mass, hardness, and friability of the tablets were found to be tunable and structures with greater mass and mechanical strength were obtained with increasing carbon concentration and energy input. Amorphization of the active pharmaceutical ingredient in the drug-loaded batches, containing 10 wt% naproxen and 1 wt% AC, was achieved in-situ during printing. Thus, amorphous solid dispersions were prepared in a single-step process and produced tablets with mass losses below 1 wt%. These findings show how the properties of dosage forms can be tuned by careful selection of the process parameters and the powder formulation. SLS 3D printing can therefore be considered to be an interesting and promising technique for the fabrication of personalized medicines., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: [Jonas Lindh reports financial support was provided by Merck KGaA.]., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To demonstrate the feasibility of vacuum compression molding as a novel technique for fabricating polymeric poly (D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) microneedles., Methods: First, polydimethylsiloxane molds were prepared using metal microneedle templates and fixed in the MeltPrep® Vacuum Compression Molding tool. Poly (D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (EXPANSORB® DLG 50-5A) was added, enclosed, and heated at 130°C for 15 min under a vacuum of -15 psi, cooled with compressed air for 15 min, followed by freezing at -20°C for 30 min, and stored in a desiccator. The microneedles and microchannels were characterized by a variety of imaging techniques. In vitro permeation of model drug lidocaine as base and hydrochloride salt was demonstrated across intact and microporated dermatomed human skin., Results: Fabricated PLGA microneedles were pyramid-shaped, sharp, uniform, and mechanically robust. Scanning electron microscopy, skin integrity, dye-binding, histology, and confocal laser microscopy studies confirmed the microchannel formation. The receptor delivery of lidocaine salt increased significantly in microporated (270.57 ± 3.73 μg/cm 2 ) skin as compared to intact skin (142.19 ± 13.70 μg/cm 2 ) at 24 h. The receptor delivery of lidocaine base from microporated skin was significantly higher (312.37 ± 10.57 μg/cm 2 ) than intact skin (169.68 ± 24.09 μg/cm 2 ) up to 8 h. Lag time decreased significantly for the base (2.24 ± 0.17 h to 0.64 ± 0.05 h) and salt (4.76 ± 0.31 h to 1.47 ± 0.21 h) after microporation., Conclusion: Vacuum compression molding was demonstrated as a novel technique to fabricate uniform, solvent-free, strong polymer microneedles in a short time., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

3d printing is capable of providing dose individualization for pediatric medicines and translating the precision medicine approach into practical application. In pediatrics, dose individualization and preparation of small dosage forms is a requirement for successful therapy, which is frequently not possible due to the lack of suitable dosage forms. For precision medicine, individual characteristics of patients are considered for the selection of the best possible API in the most suitable dose with the most effective release profile to improve therapeutic outcome. 3d printing is inherently suitable for manufacturing of individualized medicines with varying dosages, sizes, release profiles and drug combinations in small batch sizes, which cannot be manufactured with traditional technologies. However, understanding of critical quality attributes and process parameters still needs to be significantly improved for this new technology. To ensure health and safety of patients, cleaning and process validation needs to be established. Additionally, adequate analytical methods for the in-process control of intermediates, regarding their printability as well as control of the final 3d printed tablets considering any risk of this new technology will be required. The PolyPrint consortium is actively working on developing novel polymers for fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3d printing, filament formulation and manufacturing development as well as optimization of the printing process, and the design of a GMP-capable FDM 3d printer. In this manuscript, the consortium shares its views on quality aspects and measures for 3d printing from drug-loaded filaments, including formulation development, the printing process, and the printed dosage forms. Additionally, engineering approaches for quality assurance during the printing process and for the final dosage form will be presented together with considerations for a GMP-capable printer design., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

The present study investigated the transdermal delivery of donepezil hydrochloride across dermatomed porcine ear skin using passive and physical enhancement techniques. In vitro permeation studies were performed on Franz diffusion cells. Microneedles were fabricated in the lab using a polymeric blend of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP). The fabricated microneedles were characterized using SEM. Effect of PVA-PVP microneedles and ablative laser (P.L.E.A.S.E) alone, and in combination with anodal iontophoresis on the delivery of donepezil hydrochloride was investigated. Scanning electron microscopy, histology, methylene blue staining, and confocal laser microscopy were used to characterize the microchannels created in the skin. Permeation of donepezil after passive delivery was found to be 26.87 ± 3.97 µg/sq.cm. Microneedles, laser, and iontophoresis significantly increased the permeation to 282.23 ± 8.28 µg/sq.cm, 1562 ± 231.8 µg/sq.cm and 623.4 ± 21.3 µg/sq.cm. Also, a significantly higher permeation was achieved with microneedles and laser in combination with iontophoresis (1000 ± 160.9 µg/sq.cm and 1700.4 ± 189.43 µg/sq.cm respectively). A sharp increase in flux was observed with a combination of skin microporation and iontophoresis, however, the same was not observed for iontophoretic delivery alone. Thus, flux can be successfully tailored with a combination of skin microporation and iontophoresis to suit patient needs., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Hot-melt extrusion (HME) is the most preferred and effective method for manufacturing amorphous solid dispersions at production scale, but it consumes large amounts of samples when used for formulation development. Herein, we show a novel approach to screen the polymers by overcoming the disadvantage of conventional HME screening by using a minimum quantity of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). Vacuum Compression Molding (VCM) is a fusion-based method to form solid specimens starting from powders. This study aimed to investigate the processability of VCM for the creation of amorphous formulations and to compare its results with HME-processed formulations. Mixtures of indomethacin (IND) with drug carriers (Parteck ® MXP, Soluplus ®, Kollidon ® VA 64, Eudragit ® EPO) were processed using VCM and extrusion technology. Thermal characterization was performed using differential scanning calorimetry, and the solid-state was analyzed via X-ray powder diffraction. Dissolution studies in the simulated gastric fluid were performed to evaluate the drug release. Both technologies showed similar results proving the effectiveness of VCM as a screening tool for HME-based formulations.

Pediatric population is a sensitive sector of the healthcare and pharmaceutical field with additional needs compared to the adult population. Extemporaneous formulations for children are generally prepared by manipulating adult formulations, but medication errors can result in suboptimal efficacy and with significant safety concerns. The aim of proposed project was to explore a 3D printing technology for the development of customized minicaplets of baclofen for the pediatric population. Based on results of 3-point bend test, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with sorbitol (10% w/w) were selected for preparation of baclofen loaded filaments using hot melt extrusion (HME). Effect of dimension, infill percentage and infill pattern on dose, disintegration time and release profile were investigated. Characteristic crystalline peaks of baclofen were absent in DSC thermograms and XRD pattern of filament and minicaplets. Minicaplets printed in diamond (fast) infill pattern with 100% infill showed higher disintegration time (38 mins) compared to linear, sharkfill and hexagonal pattern. 3 2 full factorial orthogonal design suggested that baclofen release (D50 and D85) was marginally affected by infill percentage but significantly affected by caplet dimension (p < 0.05). Thus, low cost FDM 3D printing technique can be a promising alternative for preparation of dose and release customized pediatric dosage forms., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The first objective is to evaluate the feasibility of melt-extruding polyvinyl alcohol-based amorphous solid dispersions for oral drug delivery. The second objective is to investigate the miscibility between polyvinyl alcohol 4-88 and copovidone, and to characterize the properties of ternary itraconazole amorphous solid dispersions comprising both polymers., Methods: Samples were prepared using a co-rotating, twin-screw extruder. A solution precipitation study was conducted to compare the precipitation inhibition of polyvinyl alcohol against other commonly used polymers for amorphous solid dispersions. Miscibility between polyvinyl alcohol 4-88 and copovidone was determined using DSC and XRD analyses. All extrudates were characterized using DSC, XRD, and non-sink dissolution., Results: Polyvinyl alcohol demonstrated the highest capacity for inhibiting the precipitation of itraconazole. Itraconazole was found to be more soluble in copovidone (>30%) than in polyvinyl alcohol 4-88 (<5%) in binary extrudates. Polyvinyl alcohol and copovidone are miscible when the proportion of polyvinyl alcohol 4-88 does not exceed 30% (w/w). Compared to binary extrudates, the ternary extrudate demonstrated a higher degree of supersaturation and more sustained supersaturation of itraconazole in purified water and phosphate buffer pH 6.8 solution., Conclusion: As a surface-active material, polyvinyl alcohol was effective in inhibiting precipitation of itraconazole in aqueous media. Solubility of itraconazole in polyvinyl alcohol in solid state was limited because of the high polarity of the polymer. Ternary systems comprising a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol and copovidone demonstrated better supersaturation in aqueous media than binary systems. Ternary systems benefited from both the high solubilizing capacity of copovidone and high precipitation inhibition capacity of polyvinyl alcohol.

Controlled release matrices based on gum arabic are prepared by applying a continuous hot-melt extrusion technology: the pre-mixture consisting of gum arabic and the incorporated API is plasticized by a co-rotating twin-screw extruder, an intermediate strand is formed by a round nozzle. Single dosed matrices are prepared by cutting the semi elastic strand with a rotary fly cutter. Paracetamol and phenazone are used as model drug substances. High drug loadings up to 70% can be realized. Matrices are characterized concerning their crystalline structure, in vitro dissolution, disintegration time and various physical parameters including glass transition temperature (Tg). Release characteristic behavior is mainly influenced by erosion of the matrices. At higher drug loadings also diffusion based transport gain importance. The solubility of the API shows an influence on the erosion rate of the matrix and should therefore be considered during formulation development. Tg is mainly influenced by the solubility of the API in the surrounding matrix. High soluble phenazone shows a decrease, whereas paracetamol addition has nearly no influence on the Tg of the polymeric system. Activation energy (EA) of the glass transition is determined via dynamic mechanical analysis. The addition of APIs leads to a reduction of EA indicating an increased molecular movement at Tg region compared to placebo extrudates. X-ray diffraction is used to determine the crystalline state of the extruded matrices and interaction between matrix and incorporated APIs. The production of thin layer matrices is an interesting option to provide a fast drug delivery to the oral cavity. High mechanical strength combined with fast disintegration times can be a great advantage for the development of oro-dispersible tablets. A great benefit of the evaluated processing technology is the simple adaption of the final dose by varying either the cutting length or the diameter of the nozzle resulting in a cost-effective production of single dosed matrices without modification of the base formula., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: In the present study, we evaluated a novel processing technique for the continuous production of hot-melt extruded controlled release matrix systems. A cutting technique derived from plastics industry, where it is widely used for cutting of cables and wires was adapted into the production line. Extruded strands were shaped by a rotary fly cutter. Special focus is laid on the development of a process analytical technology by evaluating signals obtained from the servo control of the rotary fly cutter. The intention is to provide a better insight into the production process and to offer the ability to detect small variations in process-variables., Materials and Methods: A co-rotating twin-screw extruder ZSE 27 HP-PH from Leistritz (Nürnberg, Germany) was used to plasticize the starch; critical extrusion parameters were recorded. Still elastic strands were shaped by a rotary fly-cutter type Dynamat 20 from Metzner (Neu-Ulm, Germany). Properties of the final products were analyzed via digital image analysis to point out critical parameters influencing the quality. Important aspects were uniformity of diameter, height, roundness, weight, and variations in the cutting angle. Stability of the products was measured by friability tests and by determining the crushing strength of the final products. Drug loading studies up to 70% were performed to evaluate the capacity of the matrix and to prove the technological feasibility. Changes in viscosities during API addition were analyzed by a Haake Minilab capillary rheometer. X-ray studies were performed to investigate molecular structures of the matrices., Results: External shapes of the products were highly affected by die-swelling of the melt. Reliable reproducibility concerning uniformity of mass could be achieved even for high production rates (>2500cuts/min). Both mechanical strength and die-swelling of the products could be linked to the ratio of amylose to amylopectin. Formulations containing up to 70% of API could still be processed. Viscosity measurements revealed the plasticizing effect caused by API addition. Dissolution data proved the suitability of extruded starch matrices as a sustained release dosage form. Monitoring of consumed energies during the cutting process could be linked to changes in viscosity. The established PAT system enables the detection of small variations in material properties and can be an important tool to further improve process stability., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)