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Introduction Chronic diseases are associated with productivity loss costs due to sickness absence. It is not always clear, however, which chronic diseases in particular are involved with how many sickness days and associated costs. Objective To determine the prevalence, additional days of sickness absence, and associated costs of chronic diseases among the Dutch working population from 2007 to 2011. Methods Prevalence of chronic diseases and additional days of sickness absence were derived from the Netherlands Working Conditions Survey (NWCS) from 2007 to 2011. The cost of each sickness absence day was based on linked personal income data. We used multiple regression analysis to derive the unconfounded additional days of sickness absence due to each chronic disease. Results Annually, approximately 37 % of the Dutch working population reported some type of chronic physical or psychological disease. No clinically relevant changes in prevalence of specific chronic diseases were observed in the studied period, nor in the number of additional sickness absence days or associated costs. The national financial burden due to sickness absence associated with chronic musculoskeletal disorders amounted to €1.3 billion annually. Conclusions Chronic diseases result in substantial productivity loss due to sickness absence. Given the ageing population, the proposed increase in the state pension age and an increase in sedentary lifestyle and obesity, the prevalence of chronic diseases may be expected to rise. Coordinated efforts to maintain and improve the health of the working population are necessary to minimize socioeconomic consequences.

Objective. To examine the effects of pregnancy on the coordination of transverse pelvic and thoracic rotations during gait. Design. Gait of healthy pregnant women and nulligravidae was studied during treadmill walking at predetermined velocities ranging from 0.17 to 1.72 m/s. Background. Pelvis–thorax coordination during walking is altered in women with postpartum pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain. This coordination has not been investigated in a healthy pregnant population. Methods. Comfortable walking velocity was established. Amplitudes of pelvic and thoracic rotations were calculated. Their coordination was characterized by relative Fourier phase and its standard deviation. Results. Comfortable walking velocity was significantly reduced. The amplitudes of pelvic and thoracic rotations were somewhat reduced, with significantly smaller intra-individual standard deviations. Also pelvis–thorax relative Fourier phase was somewhat smaller, its intra-individual standard deviation was negatively correlated with week of pregnancy, and significantly lower at velocities P 1.06 m/s. Conclusions. The general pattern of gait kinematics in pregnant women is very similar to that of nulligravidae. Still, it appears that pregnant women experience difficulties in realizing the more anti-phase pelvis–thorax coordination that is required at higher walking velocities. Relevance The present study shows that gait in healthy pregnancy is remarkably normal, but some differences in pelvis–thorax coordination were detected. In healthy pregnancy, anti-phase pelvis–thorax coordination appears difficult, but less so than in pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain. Better understanding of gait in healthy pregnancy may provide insight into the gait problems of women with pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain. � 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The chapter starts with three published examples of economic evaluations of WDP interventions. Next, different types and examples of economic evaluations of both intervention level data and model-based economic evaluations used in WDP research are presented.

Postpolio syndrome (PPS) may affect survivors of paralytic poliomyelitis and is characterised by a complex of neuromuscular symptoms leading to a decline in physical functioning. The effectiveness of pharmacological treatment and rehabilitation management in PPS is not yet established.To review systematically the effects of any treatment for PPS compared to placebo, usual care or no treatment. We searched the following databases on 1 October 2010: Cochrane Neuromuscular Disease Group Specialized Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and CINAHL Plus from inception to September 2010.Randomised and quasi-randomised trials of any form of pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment for people with PPS. The primary outcome was self-perceived activity limitations and secondary outcomes were muscle strength, muscle endurance, fatigue, pain and adverse events.Two authors independently selected eligible studies, assessed risk of bias and extracted data.Nine pharmacological (modafinil, intravenous immunoglobulin, pyridostigmine, lamotrigine, amantadine, prednisone) and three non-pharmacological (muscle strengthening, rehabilitation in a warm climate (i.e. temperature ± 25°C, dry and sunny) and a cold climate (i.e. temperature ± 0°C, rainy or snowy), static magnetic fields) studies were included in this review. None of the included studies was completely free from any risk of bias and the most prevalent risk of bias was lack of blinding.There is moderate quality evidence that intravenous immunoglobulin has no beneficial effect on activity limitations and there is inconsistency in the evidence for effectiveness on muscle strength and pain. Results of one trial provide very low quality evidence that lamotrigine might be effective in reducing pain and fatigue, resulting in fewer activity limitations. Data from two single trials suggest that muscle strengthening of thumb muscles (very low quality evidence) and static magnetic fields (moderate quality evidence) are beneficial for improving muscle strength and pain, respectively, with unknown effects on activity limitations. Finally, there is evidence varying from very low quality to high quality that modafinil, pyridostigmine, amantadine, prednisone and rehabilitation in a warm or cold climate are not beneficial in PPS.Due to insufficient good quality data and lack of randomised studies it is impossible to draw definite conclusions on the effectiveness of interventions for PPS. Results indicate that IVIG, lamotrigine, muscle strengthening exercises and static magnetic fields may be beneficial but need further investigation.

Background Postpolio syndrome (PPS) may affect survivors of paralytic poliomyelitis and is characterised by a complex of neuromuscular symptoms leading to a decline in physical functioning. The effectiveness of pharmacological treatment and rehabilitation management in PPS is not yet established. Objectives To review systematically the effects of any treatment for PPS compared to placebo, usual care or no treatment. Search strategy We searched the following databases on 1 October 2010: Cochrane Neuromuscular Disease Group Specialized Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and CINAHL Plus from inception to September 2010. Selection criteria Randomised and quasi-randomised trials of any form of pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment for people with PPS. The primary outcome was self-perceived activity limitations and secondary outcomes were muscle strength, muscle endurance, fatigue, pain and adverse events. Data collection and analysis Two authors independently selected eligible studies, assessed risk of bias and extracted data. Main results Nine pharmacological (modafinil, intravenous immunoglobulin, pyridostigmine, lamotrigine, amantadine, prednisone) and three non-pharmacological (muscle strengthening, rehabilitation in a warm climate (i.e. temperature +/- 25 degrees C, dry and sunny) and a cold climate (i. e. temperature +/- 0 degrees C, rainy or snowy), static magnetic fields) studies were included in this review. None of the included studies was completely free from any risk of bias and the most prevalent risk of bias was lack of blinding. There is moderate quality evidence that intravenous immunoglobulin has no beneficial effect on activity limitations and there is inconsistency in the evidence for effectiveness on muscle strength and pain. Results of one trial provide very low quality evidence that lamotrigine might be effective in reducing pain and fatigue, resulting in fewer activity limitations. Data from two single trials suggest that muscle strengthening of thumb muscles (very low quality evidence) and static magnetic fields (moderate quality evidence) are beneficial for improving muscle strength and pain, respectively, with unknown effects on activity limitations. Finally, there is evidence varying from very low quality to high quality that modafinil, pyridostigmine, amantadine, prednisone and rehabilitation in a warm or cold climate are not beneficial in PPS. Authors' conclusions Due to insufficient good quality data and lack of randomised studies it is impossible to draw definite conclusions on the effectiveness of interventions for PPS. Results indicate that IVIG, lamotrigine, muscle strengthening exercises and static magnetic fields may be beneficial but need further investigation

Background Working women of childbearing age are a vital part of the population. Following childbirth, this group of women can experience a myriad of physical and mental health problems that can interfere with their ability to work. Currently, there is little known about cost-effective post-partum interventions to prevent work disability. The purpose of the study was to evaluate whether supervisor telephone contact (STC) during maternity leave is cost-effective from a societal perspective in reducing sick leave and improving quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) compared to common practice (CP). Methods We conducted an economic evaluation alongside a randomized controlled trial. QALYs were measured by the EuroQol 5-D, and sick leave and presenteeism by the Health and work Performance Questionnaire. Resource use was collected by questionnaires. Data were analysed according to intention-to-treat. Missing data were imputed via multiple imputation. Uncertainty was estimated by 95% confidence intervals, cost-utility planes and curves, and sensitivity analyses. Results 541 working women from 15 companies participated. Response rates were above 85% at each measurement moment. At the end of the follow-up, no statistically significant between-group differences in QALYs, mean hours of sick leave or presenteeism or costs were observed. STC was found to be less effective and more costly. For willingness-to-pay levels from €0 through €50,000, the probability that STC was cost-effective compared to CP was 0.2. Overall resource use was low. Mean total costs were €3678 (95% CI: 3386; 3951). Productivity loss costs represented 37% of the total costs and of these costs, 48% was attributable to sick leave and 52% to work presenteeism. The cost analysis from a company's perspective indicated that there was a net cost associated with the STC intervention. Conclusions STC was not cost-effective compared to common practice for a healthy population of working mothers; therefore, implementation is not indicated. The cost-utility of STC for working mothers with more severe post-partum health problems, however, needs to be investigated. Work presenteeism accounted for half of the total productivity loss and warrants attention in future studies. Trial registration number ISRCTN: ISRCTN73119486

Objectives: To investigate the methods used to estimate the indirect costs of health-related productivity in economic evaluations from a company's perspective. Methods: The primary literature search was conducted in Medline and Embase. Supplemental searches were conducted in the Cochrane NHS Economic Evaluation Database, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health database, the Ryerson International Labour, Occupational Safety and Health Index database, scans of reference lists and researcher's own literature database. Article selection was conducted independently by two researchers based on title, keywords, and abstract, and if needed, full text. Differences were resolved by a consensus procedure. Articles were selected based on seven criteria addressing study population, type of intervention, comparative intervention, outcome, costs, language and perspective, respectively. Characteristics of the measurement and valuation of health-related productivity were extracted and analyzed descriptively. Results: A total of 34 studies were included. Costs of health-related productivity were estimated using (a combination of) data related to sick leave, compensated sick leave, light or modified duty or work presenteeism. Data were collected from different sources (e.g. administrative databases, worker self-report, supervisors) and by different methods (e.g. questionnaires, interviews). Valuation varied in terms of reported time units, composition and source of the corresponding price weights, and whether additional elements, such as replacement costs, were included. Conclusions: Methods for measuring and valuing health-related productivity vary widely, hindering comparability of results and decision-making. We provide suggestions for improvement. © 2010 The Author(s).

Background: Stress-related mental health problems negatively impact quality of life and productivity. Worldwide, treatment is often sought in primary care. Our objective was to determine whether a general practitioner-based minimal intervention for workers with stress-related sick leave (MISS) was cost-effective compared to usual care (UC). Methods: We conducted an economic evaluation from a societal perspective. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and resource use were measured by the EuroQol and cost diaries, respectively. Uncertainty was estimated by 95% confidence intervals, cost-effectiveness planes and acceptability curves. Sensitivity analyses and ancillary analyses based on preplanned subgroups were performed. Results: No statistically significant differences in costs or QALYs were observed. The mean incremental cost per QALY was - €7356 and located in the southeast quadrant of the cost-effectiveness plane, whereby the intervention was slightly more effective and less costly. For willingness-to-pay (λ) thresholds from €0 to €100,000, the probability of MISS being cost-effective was 0.58-0.90. For the preplanned subgroup of patients diagnosed with stress-related mental disorders, the incremental ratio was - €28,278, again in the southeast quadrant. Corresponding probabilities were 0.92 or greater. Limitations: Non-significant findings may be related to poor implementation of the MISS intervention and low power. Also, work-presenteeism and unpaid labor were not measured. Conclusions: The minimal intervention was not cost-effective compared to usual care for a heterogeneous patient population. Therefore, we do not recommend widespread implementation. However, the intervention may be cost-effective for the subgroup stress-related mental disorders. This finding should be confirmed before implementation for this subgroup is considered. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The objective of this study is to compare the costs and benefits of a graded activity (GA) intervention to usual care (UC) for sick-listed workers with non-specific low back pain (LBP). The study is a single-blind, randomized controlled trial with 3-year follow-up. A total of 134 (126 men and 8 women) predominantly blue-collar workers, sick-listed due to LBP were recruited and randomly assigned to either GA (N = 67; mean age 39 +/- 9 years) or to UC (N = 67; mean age 37 +/- 8 years). The main outcome measures were the costs of health care utilization during the first follow-up year and the costs of productivity loss during the second and the third follow-up year. At the end of the first follow-up year an average investment for the GA intervention of 475 euros per worker, only 83 euros more than health care utilization costs in UC group, yielded an average savings of at least 999 euros (95% CI: -1,073; 3,115) due to a reduction in productivity loss. The potential cumulative savings were an average of 1,661 euros (95% CI: -4,154; 6,913) per worker over a 3-year follow-up period. It may be concluded that the GA intervention for non-specific LBP is a cost-beneficial return-to-work intervention.

OBJECTIVES: There were two study objectives: (i) to identify, via consensus, a key set of items for estimating the costs of productivity loss from a company's perspective and (ii) to develop recommendations for the costs of estimating productivity loss on the basis of consensus findings.METHODS: A modified Delphi procedure was utilized in which a predetermined set of 26 items formed the basis for inquiry in the first round. Thirty-six experts from five stakeholder groups in the Netherlands (employers, employees, policy makers and insurers, occupational health professionals, and researchers) participated in the panel. Opinions were sought regarding the relevance and retrievability of data on items related to the following three forms of work loss: work presenteeism (ie, decreased work performance while at work), short-term absenteeism (2 weeks). The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The consensus for relevance was set at 70%.RESULTS: After two rounds, 4 items were found relevant for estimating the costs of productivity loss due to work presenteeism, 6 items were relevant for short-term absenteeism, and 11 items remained for long-term absenteeism. The retrievability of data varied. Three sets of recommendations were formulated for estimating the costs of productivity loss from a company's perspective.CONCLUSION: A streamlined set of relevant items has been identified via consensus and formulated into recommendations for estimating the costs of productivity loss from a company's perspective. Although not definitive, these recommendations represent an important step towards standardizing the way these costs are estimated, and, in turn, facilitate the comparability and utility of economic evaluations of occupational health interventions.

Background Many women suffer from health problems after giving birth, which can lead to sick leave. About 30% of Dutch workers are on sick leave after maternity leave. Structural contact of supervisors with employees on maternity leave, supported by early medical advice of occupational physicians, may increase the chances of return-to-work after maternity leave. In addition, to understand the process of sick leave and return-to-work after childbirth it is important to gain insight into which factors hinder return-to-work after childbirth, as well, as which prognostic factors lead to the development of postpartum health complaints. In this paper, the design of the Mom@Work study is described. Methods The Mom@Work study is simultaneously a randomised controlled trial and a cohort study. Pregnant women working for at least 12 hours a week at one of the 15 participating companies are eligible to participate. The supervisors of these pregnant employees are randomised at 35 weeks pregnancy into the intervention group or control group. During maternity leave, supervisors in the intervention group contact their employee six weeks after delivery using a structured interview. When employees do not expect to return to their jobs at the end of their scheduled maternity leave due to health problems, the supervisor offers early support of the occupational physician. Supervisors in the control group have no structural contact with their employees during maternity leave. Measurements take place at 30 weeks pregnancy and at 6, 12, 24 and 52 weeks postpartum. In addition, cost data are collected. For the RCT, primary outcome measures are sick leave and return-to-work, and secondary outcome measures are costs, health, satisfaction with intervention and global feelings of recovery. Outcome measures for the cohort are pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain, fatigue and depression. Finally, a number of prognostic factors for return-to-work and for the development of complaints will be measured. Discussion The Mom@Work study will provide important information about return-to-work of employees after giving birth. Results will give insight in prognosis of postpartum sick leave and complaints. Also, the role of supervisors and occupational physicians in successful return-to-work after childbirth will be clarified.

Pregnancy-related lumbopelvic pain has puzzled medicine for a long time. The present systematic review focuses on terminology, clinical presentation, and prevalence. Numerous terms are used, as if they indicated one and the same entity. We propose “pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain (PPP)”, and “pregnancy-related low back pain (PLBP)”, present evidence that the two add up to “lumbopelvic pain”, and show that they are distinct entities (although underlying mechanisms may be similar). Average pain intensity during pregnancy is 50 mm on a visual analogue scale; postpartum, pain is less. During pregnancy, serious pain occurs in about 25%, and severe disability in about 8% of patients. After pregnancy, problems are serious in about 7%. The mechanisms behind disabilities remain unclear, and constitute an important research priority. Changes in muscle activity, unusual perceptions of the leg when moving it, and altered motor coordination were observed but remain poorly understood. Published prevalence for PPP and/or PLBP varies widely. Quantitative analysis was used to explain the differences. Overall, about 45% of all pregnant women and 25% of all women postpartum suffer from PPP and/or PLBP. These values decrease by about 20% if one excludes mild complaints. Strenuous work, previous low back pain, and previous PPP and/or PLBP are risk factors, and the inclusion/exclusion of high-risk subgroups influences prevalence. Of all patients, about one-half have PPP, one-third PLBP, and one-sixth both conditions combined. Overall, the literature reveals that PPP deserves serious attention from the clinical and research communities, at all times and in all countries.

To quantify gait impairments in women with pregnancy-related pain in the pelvis which persisted post-partum.Design. Nine patients and nine healthy subjects were studied during treadmill walking at different velocities.Walking problems in patients with pregnancy-related pain in the pelvis have been known to exist for a long time. To date, no quantitative gait studies have been conducted in this population.Maximum attainable walking velocity was determined, amplitudes of pelvic and thoracic rotations were calculated, and spectral analysis was used to assess the harmonicity of these rotations. Coordination between pelvic and thoracic rotations was characterized as mean relative Fourier phase and weighted coherence.Maximum attainable walking velocity was highly variable between patients, but on average significantly lower than in healthy controls. Moreover, patients had a significantly lower mean relative Fourier phase (again, highly variable) and higher weighted coherence. The other parameters did not differ significantly between groups.Coordination between pelvic and thoracic rotations in the transverse plane was affected in patients with pregnancy-related pain in the pelvis. Individual patients may apply different strategies during walking to cope with the underlying problems.Pregnancy-related pain in the pelvis is poorly understood. Patients with this condition are known to have problems with locomotion. The present study reveals that gait coordination is altered. Theoretically, this underlines the importance of analysing coordination in pathological movement. Clinically, better understanding the gait problems of women with pregnancy-related pain in the pelvis may contribute to more appropriate treatments.