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The area of autonomous and remotely operated ships is developing fast but is still an immature field where new ideas and novel technology solutions are being introduced. As part of these efforts, the Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships (NFAS) has defined six autonomy types for autonomous ships: two for continuously manned bridge, and four for fully or periodically unmanned systems. Different bridge manning levels and operational autonomy levels are allocated to each autonomy type, and therefore, each autonomy type could be associated with different kinds of scenarios leading to hazards. To support the decision making of the stakeholders, it is necessary to identify which autonomy type is related with which scenarios. The main objective of this paper is to identify and compare the scenarios leading to hazards of the six autonomy types. To analyse hazards of autonomous and remotely operated ships, we apply Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA). STPA is a relatively new hazard analysis technique that was developed to analyse hazards of modern complex and software-intensive control systems. STPA models the systems as a hierarchical control structure, and identifies scenarios leading to unsafe control actions that may lead to hazardous states or conditions. Six STPA analyses are conducted in this study to identify scenarios leading to hazards of the six autonomy types, and the results are compared and discussed. © The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

This PhD thesis explains the contributionmade to the safety of novel subsea technologies. It is supported by this thesis objective, which is to develop and demonstrate the application of new safety assessment methods within the scope of functional safety, which can capture and manage the complex operational behaviour of novel software-intensive systems. The objective is supported by several study cases, focusing primarily on novel subsea systems for the oil and gas industry. The novel and complex characteristics of the systems are represented in the concept of integrating the control and safety elements. The following five research questions’ topics have been addressed explicitly: • Topic I – Safe design principles. This study clarifies several safe design principles that are derived from the design approaches in several industries. It is found that the governing functional safety standard, IEC 61508, is aligned with the safe design principles. These principles have been applied to the study case. The implication is that some processes need to be adapted for novel technology involving software-intensive systems with complex operational behaviours. • Topic II – Solution-specific safety requirements. Two hazard analysis approaches that are often considered well suited for hazard analysis of novel technology, i.e., functional hazard analysis (FHA) and systems-theoretic process analysis (STPA) has been compared. The authors investigate the characteristics of both methods in more detail by performing study cases on an equipment protection system in subsea processing applications. It is concluded that STPA is more suitable based on various factors, including the method’s approach, modelling coverage, and analysis capability. The study also provides recommendations for the improvement of both methods. • Topic III – Alternative concepts. The study proposes a new classification method to distinguish different integration types, from complete independence to complete integration. STPA is then performed several times on systems with different levels of integration at the logic solver. The study also proposes a modelling technique in STPA to capture the different integration types. The result found that integration does not necessarily change the system’s functionality, but it may introduce new interactions leading to hazards. Nevertheless, the magnitude of risk for the hazard is unknown. • Topic IV – Effect on risk. The study proposes a modelling pattern to quantify the hazardous scenarios’ frequency. A text-based finite-state automata modelling pattern implemented in Altarica 3.0 has been developed. The authors demonstrate the approach capability by performing a study case on the STPA results from the topic III study. It is found that the method is capable of capturing dependencies while also highlighting the inefficiency of STPA caused by unnecessary requirement productions. The study also discusses the method’s limitation if compared with other quantification processes recommended in the standards. • Topic V – Safety argumentation. This topic summarises all the preceding results to clarify the link between the developed methods and approaches with the safety argumentation concept for novel technology. The concept is based on an argument-induced evidence model. While the PhD works do not cover all aspects of the safety argumentation concept, this PhD highlights the current state of the research and the required further works to build a complete safety demonstration framework for novel technology. The overall implications of the framework andmethods developed in this PhD thesis are that the engineers or analysts now have more assurance during the safety demonstrations process of novel technology involving software-intensive systems. The overall development process for the framework has been explained in this thesis and scrutinized through a systematic peer review process. This thesis also serves as an input for the ongoing joint industry research project Safety 4.0, which aims to enable and accelerate the uptake of novel subsea solutions by developing a standardized safety demonstration framework.

Digitalization of the services industry is much talked about phenomenon in present times. Within the maritime industry too digitalization is catching pace with the other industries. Although digitalization is still in its nascent stages in maritime industry it definitely is gaining pace. Given the size of the industry and the variety of stakeholders who have stakes in the movement of cargo and physical assets such as the vessels, start at some level is required. Technical operations of the vessels are way ahead of the commercial operations of the vessel in adoption of digital solutions. When comparing with other industries, financial industry has widely adopted to algorithmic trading where the role of financial brokers is ceasing, but the commercial shipping industry is still conducting negotiations for the freight rates and that still remains a very humanistic process with prominent role of intermediaries i.e. the shipbrokers. The purpose of this thesis is to identify the drivers and barriers in adoption of digitalization in commercial shipping operations i.e. Shipbroking and ship chartering. To study this complex issue Systematic literature review and interview analysis has been conducted in qualitative way. The findings suggest that regardless of the pace of digitalization chartering and ship broking will likely remain human intense processes in the near future. The thesis also suggests the ways in which the major barriers can be overcome if at all. The research includes theoretical and practical implications and emphasizes on the further studies in this domain.

This master thesis is performed to understand the current challenges/heavy workloads on vessels as well as their criticality evaluations and suggest some autonomous technologies as possible solutions in order to increase vessel`s safety and efficiency with eliminating or reducing the current challanges/heavy workloads.

The objective of this master thesis is to assess the feasibility of using the STPA for hazard identification and assessment of complex and fully autonomous operating systems. As a continuous work from autumn 2017, this article also assessed the possibility of using an improved STPA method for hazard identification of the autonomous vessel control system based on a case study and comparison with the FFMEA and CHAZOP. Since fully autonomous vessel is still in designed phase without any international regulations and standards, the corresponding risk analysis approaches are still incomplete and required further development. This report firstly provides an overview of autonomous operation in the fields of autonomous vessel. Industry states and standard framework in autonomy field are introduced to provide a basic research background. Then the motivation and the main steps of STPA are presented. The challenges left in specialization report are specifically discussed to seek for favorable solutions in the rest of the paper. For that reason, traditional hazard identification method FMEA and HAZOP, especially functional FMEA and control HAZOP for Guidance controller are conducted and documented. Specific limitations and opportunities in improving original STPA are identified and discussed particularly. Finally, an improved STPA implementation on fully autonomous vessel is carried out. During this process, additional unsafe control actions hidden in information communications are identified with control process guide words. It is also interesting to establish a scientific framework considering Communication, Hardware/Software and Mechanical items to scope the unsafe control actions scenarios. In this case, corresponding casual factors and mitigation measures can be systematically provided for each unsafe control action. The main result of this thesis is, by conducting FFMEA and CHAZOP approaches, two potential applications are identified which may improve original STPA method. The first application area is that, though STPA has default control command states which is Providing causes hazard, Not providing causes hazard, Applied too long/Stopped too soon causes hazard and wrong timing/order causes hazard , the level and content of the control command states is not unchangeable. Thus, by defining goal-oriented control command state at a desired level, certain UCAs can be identified with less time and efforts. Another result of this thesis is that, a scientific structure of scenarios identification framework is established. Since scenarios, casual factors and safety constraints are identified by an experienced group brainstorming in STPA step 2, it is unavoidable to omit certain cases. The situation goes even worse for an individual person due to time and experience limit. However, if we take advantages of FFMEA and CHAZOP by setting a scientific framework of scenarios categories, such as Communication, human factor, digital hardware/software and mechanic items , it can be a more systematic approach to STPA implementation by analyzing individual and interactive component failure. In conclusion, the proposed STPA approach, as a complementary activity to the original STPA method, seems to be feasible and beneficial because the it covers goal-oriented hazards with a scientific framework that are hardly covered by the original STPA approach. Further explanations can be found in discussions in this chapter.