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In the field of cybersecurity, hackers often enter computer systems despite current security measures, owing to the huge amount of network traffic that makes intruder identification difficult. Differentiating between authorized traffic and abnormal data produced by Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attackers is still a major difficulty. This research provides a unique technique that uses Quantum Machine Learning (QML) to improve security protocols for secure communication between two parties. Our strategy enhances detection accuracy and speed by using the characteristics of quantum neural networks. The approach includes creating a dataset from network traffic patterns, preprocessing it, and then turning it into quantum bits via angle embedding. The research uses outlier analysis, min-entropy, and quantum state fidelity to distinguish between normal and abnormal data patterns. The dispersed randomness of network header data is measured using entropy, which aids in identifying security concerns. The suggested QML-based methodology outperforms conventional approaches and current models, including AMM-CNN and ANN models, with a detection accuracy of 99.87% for DDoS attacks. This advancement leads to more effective and secure communication networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noise: an enemy to be dealt with and a major factor limiting communication system performance. However, what if there is gold in that garbage? In conventional engineering, our focus is primarily on eliminating, suppressing, combating, or even ignoring noise and its detrimental impacts. Conversely, could we exploit it similarly to biology, which utilizes noise‐alike carrier signals to convey information? In this context, the utilization of noise, or noise‐alike signals in general, has been put forward as a means to realize unconditionally secure communication systems in the future. In this tutorial article, we begin by tracing the origins of thermal noise‐based communication and highlighting one of its significant applications for ensuring unconditionally secure networks: the Kirchhoff‐law‐Johnson‐noise (KLJN) secure key exchange scheme. We then delve into the inherent challenges tied to secure communication and discuss the imperative need for physics‐based key distribution schemes in pursuit of unconditional security. Concurrently, we provide a concise overview of quantum key distribution schemes and draw comparisons with their KLJN‐based counterparts. Finally, extending beyond wired communication loops, we explore the transmission of noise signals over‐the‐air and evaluate their potential for stealth and secure wireless communication systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In the field of cybersecurity, hackers often enter computer systems despite current security measures, owing to the huge amount of network traffic that makes intruder identification difficult. Differentiating between authorized traffic and abnormal data produced by Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attackers is still a major difficulty. This research provides a unique technique that uses Quantum Machine Learning (QML) to improve security protocols for secure communication between two parties. Our strategy enhances detection accuracy and speed by using the characteristics of quantum neural networks. The approach includes creating a dataset from network traffic patterns, preprocessing it, and then turning it into quantum bits via angle embedding. The research uses outlier analysis, min-entropy, and quantum state fidelity to distinguish between normal and abnormal data patterns. The dispersed randomness of network header data is measured using entropy, which aids in identifying security concerns. The suggested QML-based methodology outperforms conventional approaches and current models, including AMM-CNN and ANN models, with a detection accuracy of 99.87% for DDoS attacks. This advancement leads to more effective and secure communication networks.

We provide experimental validation of quantum encryption in phase space using displacement operators in coherent states (DOCS) in a conventional coherent optical communication system. The proposed encryption technique is based on displacing the information symbols in the phase space using random phases and amplitudes to achieve encryption randomly and provide security at the physical layer. We also introduce a dual polarization encryption approach where we use two different and random DOCS to encrypt the X and Y polarizations separately. The experimental results show that only authorized users can decrypt the signal correctly, and any mismatch in the displacement operator coefficients, amplitudes, or phases will lead to a bit error ratio (BER) of approximately 50%. We also compare the performance of the system with and without encryption over 80 km of standard-single mode fiber (SSMF) transmission to assess the added penalty of such encryption. The achieved net bit rates are 224, 448, and 560 Gb/s for QPSK, 16QAM, and 32QAM modulation formats, respectively. The experimental results showcase the efficacy of the DOCS encryption technique in resisting various decryption attempts, demonstrating its effectiveness in ensuring the security and confidentiality of transmitted data in a real-world transmission scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development of vehicle electronic communication technology, in-vehicle bus network system communicates with external electronic devices such as mobile phones and OBD II, causing in-vehicle bus networks to face severe network security threats. This study aims to explore the security scheme of in-vehicle bus networks based on a key management system to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, authenticity, and availability of vehicle communication, and innovatively propose a key management system. This key management system uses data encryption and signature algorithms based on the elliptic curve cryptographic domain, which is mainly composed of key generation and key distribution modules. By designing a key life cycle management strategy for In-Vehicle Ethernet and using the digital envelope technique, data encryption and digital signatures are combined to ensure the secure generation and distribution of keys. Experimental simulation results show that the session key negotiation speed of the proposed key management system for In-Vehicle Ethernet in this study is 1.533 ms, which improves the speed by 80.5% compared with the traditional key management system. The key management system proposed in this study improves the real-time information processing efficiency in In-Vehicle Ethernet and lays a solid foundation for the stable development of intelligent connected vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Noise: an enemy to be dealt with and a major factor limiting communication system performance. However, what if there is gold in that garbage? In conventional engineering, our focus is primarily on eliminating, suppressing, combating, or even ignoring noise and its detrimental impacts. Conversely, could we exploit it similarly to biology, which utilizes noise‐alike carrier signals to convey information? In this context, the utilization of noise, or noise‐alike signals in general, has been put forward as a means to realize unconditionally secure communication systems in the future. In this tutorial article, we begin by tracing the origins of thermal noise‐based communication and highlighting one of its significant applications for ensuring unconditionally secure networks: the Kirchhoff‐law‐Johnson‐noise (KLJN) secure key exchange scheme. We then delve into the inherent challenges tied to secure communication and discuss the imperative need for physics‐based key distribution schemes in pursuit of unconditional security. Concurrently, we provide a concise overview of quantum key distribution schemes and draw comparisons with their KLJN‐based counterparts. Finally, extending beyond wired communication loops, we explore the transmission of noise signals over‐the‐air and evaluate their potential for stealth and secure wireless communication systems.

Based on the modified Diffie-Hellman (DH) protocol, a key distribution scheme between two correspondents over open communication channels is considered. The correspondents communicate through a trusted entity. An attacker can control the communication channels between the correspondents and the channels between the correspondents and the trusted authority (TA) and perform active attacks there, including a man-in-themiddle attack. DH authentication protocol using physically unclonable functions (PUF) is proposed. A formalized PUF model based on the class of universal hash functions is presented. Namely, it is proposed to use the class of strictly universal hash functions developed by Wegman and Carter. A polynomial dependence of the possible number of PPUs on the number of answers has been proven. Requirements for PPUs suitable for authentication systems are formulated. The protocol has been analyzed, and its security has been proved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose and experimentally demonstrate a wireless-channel key distribution scheme based on laser synchronization induced by a common wireless random signal. Two semiconductor lasers are synchronized under injection of the drive signal after electrical-optical conversion and emit irregular outputs that are used to generate shared keys. Our proof-of-concept experiment using a complex drive signal achieved a secure key generation rate of up to 150 Mbit/s with a bit error rate below 3.8 × 10−3. Numerical simulation results show that the proposed scheme has the potential to achieve a distribution distance of several hundred meters. It is believed that common-signal-induced laser synchronization paves the way for high-speed wireless physical-layer key distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications require wireless networks with low power consumption, low latency, and secure communication. The IPv6 over the TSCH mode of IEEE 802.15.4e (IETF 6TiSCH) standard has been created to fulfill these requirements and provide reliable and efficient communication, specifically in industrial environments. A reliable authentication process is the first step towards the ensuring privacy and security of a wireless IoT network. The IETF Constrained Join Protocol (CoJP) is the standard centralized authentication protocol developed by the IETF 6TiSCH Working Group which is used to manage the node bootstrapping processes through a centralized entity named as Join Registrar/Coordinator (JRC). This process requires the joining nodes to be authenticated via the JRC entity. Centralized authentication within 6TiSCH networks exhibits scalability limitations beyond small-to-medium deployments, necessitating alternative approaches for applications requiring large number of deployed nodes. Using a distributed approach where JRC role is distributed among the nodes within the network can help to mitigate this drawback. In this paper, a node placement method for a decentralized authentication process is introduced to address the scalability challenges of the centralized authentication process in 6TiSCH networks where a heuristic solution that can optimise Proxy-JRC placement has been proposed. Experimental results with 2,3 and 4 number of Proxy-JRC nodes placed by the proposed approach show up to 25% improvement in terms of key update time and up to 22% in terms of power consumption. These results highlight the benefits of employing a distributed key update mechanism to meet low power consumption, low latency, and secure communication requirements in large-scale 6TiSCH networks.

A ZigBee network anonymous authentication scheme based on Chebyshev chaotic mapping and Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) was proposed to solve the problems such as the incomplete reliability of ZigBee network trust center and the lack of identity authentication when accessing the network.The proposed scheme can not only realize two-way authentication of anonymous identity, but also ensure the security of key distribution when ZigBee network structure changes dynamically.It is mainly based on a ZigBee and NB-IoT wireless heterogeneous gateway, so that the server can effectively manage the nodes in the network through this gateway.From security analysis and comparison with other related literature, the proposed scheme has higher security, with anonymity and unlink ability.In addition, the results show that the proposed scheme has more advantages than other schemes on the computational overhead.

This paper proposes a dynamic secure key distribution scheme based on dispersion equalization and cellular automata (CAs). The scheme effectively eliminates the key inconsistency problem caused by imperfect channel reciprocity, and dynamic key sequences can be conveniently generated with large key space in long-haul optical transmission. In the process of communication, the legitimate parties obtain the secure core parameter from the frequency domain equalizer algorithm, and a final key sequence is generated through CA iterations on the basis of the core parameter. The randomness and reciprocity characteristics of the channel ensure the security and uniqueness of the core parameter and final key sequence. With 10G Baud 16 quadrature amplitude modulation over 400 km standard single-mode fiber transmission, the proposed scheme is verified with a free key error rate and an unlimited key generation rate. The security robustness of this scheme was theoretically analyzed and verified by sweeping the eavesdropper's tapping position and improving CA operation processing. The proposed key distribution scheme is compatible with the existing transmission system for different signal modulation formats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exploration of security applications of quantum cryptography for industrial control systems is a key research effort aimed at enhancing the security of industrial control systems through quantum cryptography. In this paper, we study the security threats faced by industrial control systems, including network attacks, data leakage, and system tampering, and propose to utilize quantum key distribution and quantum invisible state transfer algorithms to ensure the secure transmission of industrial control system data. The simulation test environment of the upper and lower computers of the industrial control system is built. The quantum encryption and decryption algorithms are deployed in the embedded environment and PCs to test the effectiveness of quantum cryptography to enhance the advanced encryption standard key scheme. The experimental results show that the quantum cryptography technology successfully realizes the encryption and decryption of data, and the total time consumed in the whole process is less than 61.8 seconds, which meets the requirements of a real-time industrial control system. Therefore, quantum cryptography is suitable for protecting field-level data in industrial control systems.

VANET, or Vehicular Adhoc Network, is widely used in mobile networks that use self-driving, navigation, entertainment, and other emergency applications. It is commonly adopted in the transport system to facilitate communication between the vehicles and crucial points. It is used to control traffic, improve routing efficiency, and better functioning of the transportation systems and controls. It enables communication between the mobile nodes through several base stations. The effectiveness of the VANET is improved through Artificial intelligence techniques. With the wide adoption of VANET networks for better communication, the network is subjected to various security vulnerabilities. This paper proposes a key generation distribution and comparison-based user authentication routing protocol to improve the security of the VANET. The communication metrics of the networks are monitored, and the data obtained are processed through the RNN algorithm. The nodes are authenticated using bilinear mapping, which involves registration, authentication, and verification. The nodes are identified during registration, a private key is assigned for temporary authentication, and the nodes are verified. NS3 is used to simulate the proposed model, where it obtained throughput, PDR, energy efficiency, and packet loss of 99.8, 99.3, 99, and 0.02%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks are usually applied in hostile areas where nodes can easily be monitored and captured by an adversary. Designing a key distribution scheme with high security and reliability, low hardware requirements, and moderate communication load is crucial for wireless sensor networks. To address the above objectives, we propose a new key distribution scheme based on an ECC asymmetric encryption algorithm. The two-way authentication mechanism in the proposed scheme not only prevents illegal nodes from accessing the network, but also prevents fake base stations from communicating with the nodes. The complete key distribution and key update methods ensure the security of session keys in both static and dynamic environments. The new key distribution scheme provides a significant performance improvement compared to the classical key distribution schemes for wireless sensor networks without sacrificing reliability. Simulation results show that the proposed new scheme reduces the communication load and key storage capacity, has significant advantages in terms of secure connectivity and attack resistance, and is fully applicable to wireless sensor networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Space–Air–Ground Integrated Network (SAGIN) expands cyberspace greatly. Dynamic network architecture, complex communication links, limited resources, and diverse environments make SAGIN's authentication and key distribution much more difficult. Public key cryptography is a better choice for terminals to access SAGIN dynamically, but it is time-consuming. The semiconductor superlattice (SSL) is a strong Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) to be the hardware root of security, and the matched SSL pairs can achieve full entropy key distribution through an insecure public channel. Thus, an access authentication and key distribution scheme is proposed. The inherent security of SSL makes the authentication and key distribution spontaneously achieved without a key management burden and solves the assumption that excellent performance is based on pre-shared symmetric keys. The proposed scheme achieves the intended authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and forward security, which can defend against masquerade attacks, replay attacks, and man-in-the-middle attacks. The formal security analysis substantiates the security goal. The performance evaluation results confirm that the proposed protocols have an obvious advantage over the elliptic curve or bilinear pairings-based protocols. Compared with the protocols based on the pre-distributed symmetric key, our scheme shows unconditional security and dynamic key management with the same level performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose and experimentally demonstrate a wireless-channel key distribution scheme based on laser synchronization induced by a common wireless random signal. Two semiconductor lasers are synchronized under injection of the drive signal after electrical-optical conversion and emit irregular outputs that are used to generate shared keys. Our proof-of-concept experiment using a complex drive signal achieved a secure key generation rate of up to 150 Mbit/s with a bit error rate below 3.8 × 10−3. Numerical simulation results show that the proposed scheme has the potential to achieve a distribution distance of several hundred meters. It is believed that common-signal-induced laser synchronization paves the way for high-speed wireless physical-layer key distribution.

We present the first constant round, multicast, authenticated tree-based R-LWE group key exchange protocol with logarithmic communication and memory complexity. Our protocol achieves post-quantum security through a reduction to a Diffie–Hellman-like analogue to the decisional R-LWE problem. We also present a sequential version with constant memory complexity but a logarithmic number of rounds and communication complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A quantum noise stream cipher (QNSC) is a physical layer encryption technology based on quantum noise. Bit error rate loopback measurement (BER-LM) is a method to measure the BER of a loopback channel and extract channel characteristics. Then, channel characteristics can be extracted, and consensus keys can be obtained through negotiation. In previous studies, encryption and key distribution were implemented in independent channels. In this paper, we propose a scheme that combines these two technologies in a single fiber channel to achieve encrypted transmission and key distribution. We verified a 20 Gbps QPSK coherent optical transmission system with a PSK/QNSC scheme. The results show that by reasonably setting the negotiation bit position, the consensus key could be obtained through negotiation, and the requirements of transmission performance could be met. When the negotiation bit position was set to seven, the Q-factor of the system was nine, which met the error-free condition of the 7% forward error correction (FEC) limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Managing multiple symmetric keys is a critical issue when symmetric cryptography is adopted to protect the confidentiality of the outsourced data in cloud storage. Hierarchical key management utilizing key derivation is a widely studied mechanism. In this mechanism, a large number of keys can be derived from a handful of keys and organized by a hierarchical structure. However, the distribution of multiple derived keys was rarely discussed in the literature. How to minimize the traffic cost of key distribution, especially in the dynamic scenario, is still an open issue. In this paper, we study how to (i) construct a binary key-derivation tree to support in-situ updates, (ii) minimize the traffic cost of distributing derived keys in both static and dynamic cases via the minimal key set. A new key node structure is designed to keep the node positions unchanged during the update process and simplify the generation of the minimal key set. Based on the design, we develop a basic generation algorithm which is the basis of our final algorithm. In addition, the key distribution and re-derivation processes are also expounded as the essential parts of the complete scheme. We also evaluate the performance overheads by extensive experiments and analyze the reduced traffic cost theoretically. The results show the proposed algorithm is efficient and practical in cloud storage systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classical cryptography with complex computations has recently been utilized in the latest computing systems to create secret keys. However, systems can be breached by fast-measuring methods of the secret key; this approach does not offer adequate protection when depending on the computational complexity alone. The laws of physics for communication purposes are used in quantum computing, enabling new computing concepts to be introduced, particularly in cryptography and key distribution. This paper proposes a quantum computing lattice (CQL) mechanism that applies the BB84 protocol to generate a quantum key. The generated key and a one-time pad encryption method are used to encrypt the message. Then Babai’s algorithm is applied to the ciphertext to find the closet vector problem within the lattice. As a result, quantum computing concepts are used with classical encryption methods to find the closet vector problem in a lattice, providing strength encryption to generate the key. The proposed approach is demonstrated a high calculation speed when using quantum computing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a dynamic secure key distribution scheme based on dispersion equalization and cellular automata (CAs). The scheme effectively eliminates the key inconsistency problem caused by imperfect channel reciprocity, and dynamic key sequences can be conveniently generated with large key space in long-haul optical transmission. In the process of communication, the legitimate parties obtain the secure core parameter from the frequency domain equalizer algorithm, and a final key sequence is generated through CA iterations on the basis of the core parameter. The randomness and reciprocity characteristics of the channel ensure the security and uniqueness of the core parameter and final key sequence. With 10G Baud 16 quadrature amplitude modulation over 400 km standard single-mode fiber transmission, the proposed scheme is verified with a free key error rate and an unlimited key generation rate. The security robustness of this scheme was theoretically analyzed and verified by sweeping the eavesdropper’s tapping position and improving CA operation processing. The proposed key distribution scheme is compatible with the existing transmission system for different signal modulation formats.

The need for secure communication in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is increasing as more and more complex sensors are being developed and deployed for a variety of purposes. Secure communication in WSN can be made possible by using secret group key. However, securely distributing group key among sensor nodes is a difficult task and requires very complex mathematical calculations. The schemes presented so far are either vulnerable to various security attacks or have high computational and storage complexity. This paper presents a new Group Key Distribution scheme with Mutual Healing (GKDMH) which is based on Chinese Remainder theorem. The proposed scheme has better performance than existing schemes in terms of computational and storage complexity, and provides mutual healing in case of missed transmissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring network that provides temporary connections to several wireless nodes. Trust mechanisms are employed in routing protocols to quickly locate a safe path. Because of its openness and complexity, MANET can be attacked in a number of ways. To begin mitigating potential security risks, a number of different cryptographic key generation strategies are explored. A key management system for MANET security is available with different encryption techniques. Identity with Trust Level based Cryptography Model (ITLCM) is used to generate multiple keys and distribute these to particular targets. At this stage, key management protocols are essential to any secure group architecture of communication. Because of its dynamic topology which extensively affects its application, the multi key management is an essential task. When compared to more conventional methods of protecting a network, MANET security is entirely novel. Security routing protocol implementation is difficult since it requires the production and distribution of multiple keys. To provide both connection and message protection without relying on third parties, the Neighbor Trust Weight based Routing Model (NTWRM) is designed. In the proposed model, a trusted node is selected to monitor all of the nodes in the routing process to create a stable multi-key distribution environment that enhances MANET performance. In comparison with traditional methods, the proposed model shows that its findings are better than the existing ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the number and characteristics of smart devices change, the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) emerges. The IoT provides the connected devices with a variety of resources that enable effective communication. At this point, several security issues arise to get the sensitive information behind every communication in the IoT. To provide users with security and privacy, cryptographic schemes are adopted, the most popular being public key cryptographic systems (PKC). However, with the advent of quantum computing, the level of security that can be provided by the PKC schemes is a big question. Another important issue is that the IoT environment is resource‐constrained, which necessitates the implementation of lightweight cryptographic algorithms for better security. In response to these issues, the post‐quantum cryptographic (PQC) schemes are one of the significant developments contributing to IoT security in the post‐quantum world. This article examines the key security issues in the IoT environment and examines the effective solutions found in the literature. The problems in IoT in the quantum era are discussed and appropriate solutions by PKC schemes under limited resources in IoT are focused. As the lattice‐based cryptosystems are more effective, the importance of these schemes in the resource‐constrained IoT is highlighted. This survey also leads to feasible future directions that can support developers and researchers in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks are usually applied in hostile areas where nodes can easily be monitored and captured by an adversary. Designing a key distribution scheme with high security and reliability, low hardware requirements, and moderate communication load is crucial for wireless sensor networks. To address the above objectives, we propose a new key distribution scheme based on an ECC asymmetric encryption algorithm. The two-way authentication mechanism in the proposed scheme not only prevents illegal nodes from accessing the network, but also prevents fake base stations from communicating with the nodes. The complete key distribution and key update methods ensure the security of session keys in both static and dynamic environments. The new key distribution scheme provides a significant performance improvement compared to the classical key distribution schemes for wireless sensor networks without sacrificing reliability. Simulation results show that the proposed new scheme reduces the communication load and key storage capacity, has significant advantages in terms of secure connectivity and attack resistance, and is fully applicable to wireless sensor networks.

The recent years have garnered huge attention towards the Internet of Things (IoT) because it enables its consumers to improve their lifestyles and professionally keep up with the technological advancements in the cyber-physical world. The IoT edge devices are heterogeneous in terms of the technology they are built on and the storage file formats used. These devices require highly secure modes of mutual authentication to authenticate each other before actually sending the data. Mutual authentication is a very important aspect of peer-to-peer communication. Secure session keys enable these resource-constrained devices to authenticate each other. After successful authentication, a device can be authorized and can be granted access to shared resources. The need for validating a device requesting data transfer to avoid data privacy breaches that may compromise confidentiality and integrity. Blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) both are extensively being used as an integrated part of IoT networks for security enhancements. Blockchain provides a decentralized mechanism to store validated session keys that can be allotted to the network devices. Blockchain is also used to load balance the stressing edge devices during low battery levels. AI on the other hand provides better learning and adaptiveness towards IoT attacks. The integration of newer technologies in IoT key management yields enhanced security features. In this article, we systematically survey recent trending technologies from an IoT security point of view and discuss traditional key security mechanisms. This article delivers a comprehensive quality study for researchers on authentication and session keys, integrating IoT with blockchain and AI-based authentication in cybersecurity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]