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Four male neutered continental giant rabbits aged between 10 and 30 months were presented with femoral condylar fractures, which developed without an observed traumatic injury. Stabilisation of the condylar fracture was achieved with screw fixation in all cases, which was supplemented with additional fixation in three cases. Complications consequent to the surgical intervention occurred in two cases: a femoral fracture and loss of fixation. Three rabbits were reported to have recovered normal limb function, and the rabbit that developed a femoral fracture as a consequence of its surgical intervention was treated with amputation.

Background: A rescued, captive, adult, male, inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented with chronic swelling of the right upper and lower eyelids, with intermittent blepharospasm.Case description: Histopathology revealed a proliferative conjunctivitis, including inflammation of the nictitating membrane, along with a mixed, chronic, inflammatory response. Located on the epithelial surface, were numerous, surface oriented apicomplexan organisms, histologically compatible with Cryptosporidium sp. Molecular characterisation revealed these organisms to be most closely related to C. avium based on amplification and sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene.Conclusions and case relevance: This report describes the diagnosis of spontaneous conjunctivitis involving Cryptosporidium sp. in a reptile; C. avium has not been implicated previously in extra-enteric disease in a non-avian species. Infection by C. avium has only once been reported in lizards and this study provides further evidence that its host range may be broader than anticipated. Cryptosporidiosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for refractory conjunctivitis in lizards.

Objective To determine the in vitro compatibility of rabbit and canine blood using both a tube and slide agglutination crossmatch technique and to compare the results obtained from these 2 methods. Design Prospective observational laboratory study from January to March 2020. Setting University veterinary teaching hospital. Animals Six client-owned rabbits ≥3.5 kg undergoing phlebotomy for a clinical reason. "Pigtail" blood samples from 3 dog erythrocyte antigen (DEA) 1-positive and 3 DEA 1-negative canine packed red blood cell units. Interventions Blood from each rabbit was crossmatched with a single unit of canine blood using both a standard laboratory tube agglutination technique and a simple slide agglutination method with each rabbit/canine unit serving as its own intraassay control. Tube crossmatches were evaluated for agglutination both macro- and microscopically and assessed for hemolysis. Slide crossmatches were assessed for the presence of agglutination both macro- and microscopically. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: All crossmatches were incompatible. Varying degrees of agglutination were seen for all crossmatches. Hemolysis was observed with all minor tube crossmatches. Results of both crossmatch techniques were in close agreement. CONCLUSIONS: The crossmatch results in this present study strongly demonstrate in vitro incompatibility between canine and rabbit blood. Agreement between the 2 techniques in this study indicates that the slide agglutination technique may be quicker, require less blood, and provide reliable results in exclusively assessing the compatibility of canine and rabbit blood. Based on the results of this study, emergency xenotransfusion of canine blood to rabbits cannot be recommended.

A 2-year-10-month-old sexually intact female fancy rat was evaluated due to acute onset neurological signs following a two-month history of lethargy and behavioural changes. Physical exam results revealed generalised muscle atrophy. Results of neurological examination localised the lesion most likely to the right thalamus based on suspicion of left unilateral hemineglect. The patient was euthanised due to quality of life concerns and post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain was performed, followed by necropsy. This showed a lesion in the region of the pituitary which was T1 hyperintense to the brain, T2 isointense to white matter and hypointense on gradient echo sequences, suggestive of subacute haemorrhage. We describe the clinical presentation and imaging features (MRI) of suspected pituitary apoplexia secondary to a pituitary macroadenoma in an aged female rat. Of particular interest are the findings of unilateral hemineglect and blooming artefact on MRI gradient echo sequences that lead to suspicion of pituitary apoplexia confirmed at post-mortem examination.

a 5- year- old neutered male French lop rabbit presented with a 6- hour history of stranguria and reduced faecal output. routine haematology, serum biochemistry, urinalysis and diagnostic imaging were performed. Ultrasonography revealed left renal pelvis and ureter distension due to the presence of a proximal and distal calculus and marked heterogenous bladder sediment. a diagnosis of left hydronephrosis due to ureteral obstruction with a suspected underlying pyelonephritis and hypercalciuria was made. the rabbit was treated medically with intravenous fluid therapy, prokinetic drugs, analgesia, systemic antibiotics and nutritional support, as well as closely monitored by ultrasonographic examination. three days later, clinical signs and urinary tract findings had resolved. repeat imaging at 7 days post- treatment was normal. this is the first report of successful medical management of obstructive ureterolithiasis in a pet rabbit. the small ureteral diameter in rabbits and consequent surgical limitations make medical therapy with close serial ultrasonographic monitoring an alternative option to surgical intervention in select cases that are evaluated as stable. surgical intervention, however, should always be considered in cases that do not respond to medical therapy

Introduction: Corn snakes are a very common pet reptile species, yetthere is an absence of evidence-based literature standardising collectionof electrocardiographs (ECG) or detailing ECG deflection morphology inthe normal animal. We describe a well-tolerated, reproducible techniqueand detail the cardiac cycle in terms of lead 2 equivalent waveforms andintervals.Animals: 29 adult corn snakes.Materials and methods: This prospective study evaluated under speciesappropriate, standardised conditions, a technique for producing standardsix-lead ECG tracings. Lead 2 equivalent cardiac cycles were described indetail and statistically analysed for gender, weight, length, heart rateand mean electrical axis.Results: High-quality tracings demonstrated common ECG characteristicsfor this species, including: no Q, S or SV waves, prolonged PR and RTintervals, rhythmic oscillation of the baseline, short TP segments and aright displaced mean electrical axis. An influence of gender, weight orlength on heart rate and mean electrical axis was not identified.Conclusions: To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to describea standardised technique for recording ECG in significant numbers ofnormal corn snakes. Ranges have been provided that may be ofdiagnostic value or form the basis for future development of referenceintervals for this species

A 9-month-old neutered male rabbit was referred for lethargy, anorexia, and gastrointestinal stasis. Routine hematology, serum biochemistry, and diagnostic imaging were performed. Computed tomography revealed a wall thickening of the sacculus rotundus and appendix, which was further confirmed on abdominal ultrasound. Full thickness biopsies were collected with histopathology diagnosing a chronic multifocal heterophilic granulomatous sacculitis and appendicitis. The patient was treated medically and at 6 weeks follow-up, clinical signs and intestinal changes had completely regressed. Inflammation of the sacculus rotundus and appendix should be considered as a cause of gastrointestinal stasis in rabbits.

Premedication is considered routine for domestic animal and human anesthesia but is rarely applied to avian patients, and few controlled studies exist to document effects of premedication in avian species. To determine the effects of a butorphanol and midazolam premedication on general anesthesia and quality of induction and recovery phases in psittacid species, 17 clinically healthy birds undergoing anesthesia were randomly allocated into either a premedicated or control group. Anesthetic parameters were subsequently compared. Induction time and isoflurane concentration required for anesthetic maintenance were reduced in the premedicated group. Induction quality scores were improved in the premedicated group and no adverse effects on anesthesia and cardiovascular stability were observed. Use of a combined butorphanol and midazolam premedication in clinically healthy psittacine birds appears safe and effective. Premedication provides a beneficial effect at induction and enables maintenance levels of anesthetic gas to be reduced.

Objectives: To describe the incidence, aetiology, characteristics, assessment, management and outcome of long-bone fractures in rabbits presenting to a single institution. Methods: Medical records of pet rabbits diagnosed with long-bone fractures over a twelve-year period were analysed. Patient signalment, fracture aetiology, fracture location, fracture description, time from fracture occurrence to veterinary presentation, fixation method, postoperative complications, clinical outcome and follow-up were recorded. Results:Twenty-eight pet rabbits that sustained thirty fractures were included in the study (femoral (n=12), tibial (n=6), metacarpal/metatarsal/phalangeal (n=5), radial and ulnar (n=4) and tarsal (n=3). Twenty-one (75%) of the rabbits were less than 2 years of age, including seven (25%) under 6 months of age. Twenty-five fractures had no identifiable cause and five were traumatic. Only one fracture was open. Surgical stabilisation was performed in twenty-two fractures, four were non-surgically managed, two had the affected limb amputated, one underwent digital amputation and one was euthanased. Postoperative complications occurred in nine fractures (major (n=6), minor (n=3)). The frequency of complications or attainment of a functional recovery were not significantly different between the different methods of fixation. Overall, twenty-four rabbits recovered, two were euthanased and four underwent limb amputation. Impact:Fractures in rabbits typically occur in young animals and they usually lack an obvious aetiology. The majority of the rabbits treated achieved a functional recovery, although the postoperative complication rate was high in fractures treated surgically (41%).

Corn snakes are a very common pet reptile species, yet there is an absence of evidence-based literature standardising collection of ECG or detailing ECG deflection morphology in the normal animal. The authors describe a well-tolerated, reproducible technique and detail the cardiac cycle in terms of lead 2 equivalent waveforms and intervals.29 adult corn snakes.This prospective study evaluated, under species-appropriate, standardised conditions, a technique for producing standard six-lead ECG tracings. Lead 2 equivalent cardiac cycles were described in detail and statistically analysed for sex, weight, length, heart rate and mean electrical axis.High-quality tracings demonstrated common ECG characteristics for this species, including no Q, S or SV waves, prolonged PR and RT intervals, rhythmic oscillation of the baseline, short TP segments, and a right displaced mean electrical axis. An influence of sex, weight or length on heart rate and mean electrical axis was not identified.To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to describe a standardised technique for recording ECG in significant numbers of normal corn snakes. Ranges have been provided that may be of diagnostic value or form the basis for future development of reference intervals for this species.

There are a wide variety of infectious agents that can cause systemic disease in poultry. A typical clinical presentation is a weak and collapsed bird, and systemic diseases are important conditions to rule out. This chapter describes the aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases, as well as miscellaneous systemic conditions.

Alleviating pain in exotic species is often overlooked, or the extent of pain is underestimated. This chapter discusses the complications associated with pain management in exotic species, and provides advice on adapting methods used in dogs and cats. Case examples: Mammary mass removal in rats; Shell trauma in tortoises.

Ear disease, involving the middle and external ear, is commonly reported in pet rabbits, with lop-eared breeds predisposed. CT is the most reliable imaging modality for identifying otitis media (OM) in rabbits. This study aimed to develop a CT-based grading scale to classify the severity of CT changes in rabbits with presumed OM. Three observers independently reviewed CT images of 36 rabbits with OM. For both OM and material within the external ear canal, a grade of I to IV was used, (I=mild, IV=severe disease) and the level of agreement between reviewers was statistically evaluated. The study demonstrated that grades from the three reviewers showed a strong level of interobserver agreement. Comparisons between clinical signs and CT grade were also evaluated. Rabbits with grade IV OM had a high grade of material in the external ear canal. A high proportion of rabbits (83 per cent) underwent CT scanning conscious, demonstrating that diagnostic quality CT images are achievable without the need for anaesthetic intervention, minimising patient risk. This novel CT-based grading scale provides a methodology to correlate grade of disease with clinical signs, ear canal cytology, predisposing factors, treatment options and outcomes for rabbits with ear disease.

Handling birds carries a small risk of mortality, particularly with small or diseased birds or if handling is prolonged; preparation and knowledge of handling techniques are essential to mitigating this risk. Parrots, raptors and passerines have different anatomical conformations and therefore present different challenges when it comes to handling and transport; this chapter considers each group of birds separately.

OBJECTIVES To review the types of cloacal prolapses seen in reptiles and to investigate potential risk factors which may be associated with the presence of a cloacal prolapse. METHOD Retrospective review of medical records of all reptile cases evaluated at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies between 1999 and 2013; only cases which had a history of cloacal prolapse were included in the study. RESULTS Prolapses were identified in 56 of 3019 (1·9%) reptiles examined over the study period. Prolapses were 3·47 times as likely in chelonians and lizards compared to snakes. There were no statistically significant differences between the prevalence of prolapses in males and females. Females were 7·5 times more likely to present with a true cloacal prolapse involving no other organs compared to males, and were 4·83 times more likely to present with a prolapse of the colon. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results suggest that cloacal prolapses are not a common occurrence but that species and sex may both influence the prevalence and type of cases seen.

Anesthesia and tube restraint methods are often required for computed tomography (CT) of snakes due to their natural tendency to curl up. However, these restraint methods may cause animal stress. The aim of this study was to determine whether the CT appearance of the lungs differs for ball pythons in a curled position vs. tube restraint. Whole body CT was performed on ten clinically healthy ball pythons, first in curled and then in straight positions restrained in a tube. Curved multiplanar reformatted (MPR) lung images from curled position scans were compared with standard MPR lung images from straight position scans. Lung attenuation and thickness were measured at three locations for each scan. Time for positioning and scanning was 12 ± 5 min shorter for curled snakes compared to tube restraint. Lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation declined from cranial to caudal on both straight and curled position images. Mean lung parenchyma thickness was greater in curled images at locations 1 (P = 0.048) and 3 (P = 0.044). Mean lung parenchyma thickness decreased between location 1 and 2 by 86-87% (straight: curled) and between location 1 and 3 by 51-50% (straight: curled). Mean lung attenuation at location 1 was significantly greater on curled position images than tube restraint images (P = 0.043). Findings indicated that CT evaluation of the lungs is feasible for ball pythons positioned in curled recumbency if curved MPR is available. However, lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation in some locations may vary from those acquired using tube restraint.

Een steenarend (Aquila chrysaetos) werd onderzocht voor evenwichtsproblemen die ontstaan waren na trauma door een harde landing tijdens de fi tnesstraining. Met magnetische resonantie en computertomografi e werd een chronische atlanto-occipitale subluxatie aangetoond met een craniodorsale verplaatsing van de atlas (atlanto-occipitale overlapping) en secundair een dynamische compressie van de hersenstam en het ruggenmerg. Bovendien werd een malunion van een oudere fractuur gezien met fusie van C1 en C2. De vogel werd geeuthanaseerd omwille van de klinische achteruitgang en een slechte prognose.

A 3-month-old female degu (Octodon degus) was presented because blood was noticed in its cage. On physical examination, firm masses were palpable within the caudal abdomen and traces of blood appeared to be coming from the patient’s vaginal opening. Radiographic images showed areas of ill-defined mineralization within the uterus, consistent with fetus formation. Three fetuses could be identified. Ultrasound examination of the degu failed to confirm viable fetal heartbeats. Pregnancy failure with fetal death was suspected. Overnight 1 fetus was passed, but medical therapy with oxytocin failed to induce delivery of the 2 remaining fetuses by the following morning. The degu was therefore anesthetized, an ovariohysterectomy was performed, and the patient made an uncomplicated recovery. Histopathological examination of the fetuses failed to identify any abnormalities. In the uterus, histology confirmed a minimal to mild diffuse, chronic active endometritis. The definitive cause of fetal death was not identified.

Six lop rabbits were presented with clinical signs of otitis media or externa. The presence of disease was confirmed by computerized tomography examination, with two rabbits suffering from bilateral disease. The rabbits were anaesthetized and underwent surgery of the affected bulla. Rabbits with bilateral disease had a minimum of 2 weeks between procedures. A single vertical incision was made over the base of the vertical canal, which was bluntly dissected free from surrounding tissue. The ventral portion of the vertical canal was removed and a lateral bulla osteotomy was performed. The mucosa at the base of the dorsal vertical canal was apposed and the aural cartilage sutured to form a blind-ending pouch open at the pretragic incisure. Histopathological samples taken from the dorsal margin of the vertical canal yielded subtle and non-specific changes in the six samples submitted. All rabbits were discharged within 48 hours of surgery. The cosmetic outcome was excellent with animals retaining visually normal aural anatomy. The partial ear canal ablation/lateral bulla osteotomy procedure is quick and has a good cosmetic result when performed in rabbits.

A 15-month-old, ovariohysterectomized female Lionhead rabbit was presented with generalized chronic exfoliative dermatitis and patchy alopecia. General physical examination revealed no abnormalities apart from a body condition score of 4 of 9. Ectoparasitic infestation, dermatophytosis, Malassezia dermatitis, epitheliotropic lymphoma, thymoma-associated exfoliative dermatitis, and autoimmune hepatitis-associated exfoliative dermatitis were excluded on the basis of skin scrapings, fungal culture, cutaneous histopathology, thoracic radiography, and the results of hematologic and biochemical analyses. Histopathology of the skin showed orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis, absence of sebaceous glands and mural lymphocytic folliculitis, consistent with sebaceous adenitis. The extent and severity of the skin lesions were scored by the Rabbit Dermatitis Extent and Severity Index adapted from the recently published Canine Atopic Dermatitis Extent and Severity Index–03. Once-daily oral treatment with 5 mg/kg of ciclosporin A dissolved in an equal amount of a medium-chain triglyceride solution (Miglyol 812; Bufa, Uitgeest, The Netherlands) was initiated, but the response to this was poor. Therefore, while maintaining the oral treatment, topical treatment with phytosphingosine products was given. The rabbit's coat was clipped and a phytosphingosine 0.2% microemulsion spray (daily), a phytosphingosine 0.1% shampoo (weekly), and a phytosphingosine 1% spot-on treatment (weekly) were applied. Nine months later, there had been significant hair regrowth on previously hairless areas and the Rabbit Dermatitis Extent and Severity Index confirmed the marked improvement with a 91% reduction in the original score. Serum ciclosporin concentrations were undetectable throughout the treatment period.

High anaerobic tolerance means it can be difficult to determine when a reptile has been appropriately euthanased. Kevin Eatwell described how to perform the procedure correctly and sympathetically.

Reptiles are an increasing component of small animal practice, whether they are animals belonging to private owners or zoological collections, or, occasionally, wildlife casualties. The provision of analgesia and anaesthesia in these species is notoriously difficult due to differences in metabolism compared with other animals and their ability to bypass the pulmonary circuit. This article discusses the use of analgesics and anaesthetics in reptiles, and outlines the requirements for appropriate monitoring and recovery. Kevin Eatwell graduated from Bristol in 1995 and initially worked in mixed practice before working for various wildlife hospitals, zoological collections, commercial clinical pathology laboratories and exotic pet practices. He is currently a lecturer in exotic animal and wildlife medicine at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. He is a veterinary liaison officer for the British Chelonia Group and an adviser to the Tortoise Protection Group. He holds the RCVS certificate and diploma in zoological medicine, and is an RCVS recognised specialist in zoo and wildlife medicine. Thermoregulation and metabolism Reptiles are ectothermic and their metabolic rate is determined by their ability to thermoregulate. This means that animals can choose to select a body temperature that is optimal for the metabolic processes occurring at that time. Therefore, when dealing with such animals, an appropriate environment with a thermal gradient should be provided. If a patient is too collapsed to thermoregulate, a suitable even temperature will help to optimise metabolism. Metabolic rate has a huge influence on drug therapy. Studies in tortoises, for example, have shown differences in the uptake and clearance of therapeutic agents. Thus, the first rule of medicine and surgery in reptiles is to warm the patient to its optimal temperature before examination and drug therapy.

Hypocalcemia was diagnosed in a Tunisian tortoise, Furculachelys nabeulensis, based on biochemical analysis. Further diagnostic procedures were performed, and radiography confirmed six well-calcified eggs present. Blood 25-hydroxycholecalciferol was within acceptable limits. Medical and surgical treatment failed. Histopathology demonstrated dystrophic calcification in the cardiac muscle, aorta, and renal tissue. The parathyroid glands were also enlarged in histopathology.

Antibiotics are the most commonly administered therapy to reptiles. A logical approach to therapy is important and this encompasses quantifying the need for therapy, followed by an appropriate choice of agent. Antibiotics need to be given at an appropriate dose, frequency and route, based on current information available. It is important to keep patients at their optimal temperature (To) to maximize the effectiveness of therapy. There are three potential methods for obtaining an appropriate dosage. Firstly, an empirical dose based on experience with perceived effectiveness can be considered. Secondly, metabolic scaling can be used to estimate a likely effective dose. Thirdly, dose rates derived from pharmacokinetic studies should be considered when treating other similar reptiles. This review reports on the pharmacokinetic data that exists for antibiotics in reptiles and the spectrum of activity for each agent. The effects of the renal portal system are also briefly discussed.

Blood samples were obtained from Hermann's tortoises, Testudo hermanni, spur-thighed tortoises, Testudo graeca, and Horsfield tortoises, Testudo horsfieldi, by jugular venipuncture and were collected into heparin. Ionized calcium, sodium and potassium analyses were performed using the ion selective electrode principle. The effect of sample type (heparinized whole blood vs. heparinized plasma) and storage were evaluated. No statistically significant differences were found between ionized calcium levels determined from heparinized plasma samples stored for 48 hr at 5°C (23°F) and fresh heparinized whole blood. Mean ionized calcium levels determined from the heparinized plasma were: males 3.72 mEq/L (1.86 mmol/L), females 3.86 mEq/L (1.93 mmol/L) and 3.80 mEq/L (1.90 mmol/L) for the combined data. Sodium and potassium levels were also determined and there were statistically significantly lower sodium levels and higher potassium levels in the stored heparinized whole blood compared to the fresh hepar...

Jennifer E. Graham 400 pages, hardback, £68.99. Wiley-Blackwell. 2016. ISBN 978 1 118 93459 3 When I was asked to review this text, the first question that came into my mind was, ‘Can an avian consult be completed in five minutes and, if so, what would be needed to be able to achieve this?’ This book aims to cover the essentials needed to effectively triage avian patients in a succinct fashion, helping the clinician to decide whether, for example, the patient should be discharged or hospitalised. The book’s contents are listed in alphabetical order; some are overviews of signalment such as ‘anorexia’ and …

Rabbit owners expect a high level of care for their pets but many are reluctant to take advantage of referral and so general practitioners need to have a thorough understanding of analgesia and anaesthesia to minimize mortality and morbidity. This chapter covers useful critical care techniques and advances in rabbit analgesia, sedation and anaesthesia.

Budgerigars are regularly seen in practice and it is important to have a general understanding of their basic requirements, to help clients keep these small psittacines in optimum health. The veterinary nurse must also be able to restrain the bird and carry out examinations swiftly, with as little stress to the bird as possible

Plasma total calcium, ionised calcium and albumin levels in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni), spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca), marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata) and Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldi) were investigated. The animals were captive adults maintained under natural unfiltered sunlight in the UK with no dietary sources of cholecalciferol. Analysis of total calcium data showed statistically significant seasonal elevations in females in August compared with March (P=0.003), and statistically significant elevations in females compared with males at all sampling points (March P=0.036, June P=0.003 and August P

The concentration of ionised calcium was measured in the plasma of 13 Hermann9s tortoises ( Testudo hermanni boettgeri ), nine spur-thighed tortoises ( Testudo graeca ibera ), two marginated tortoises ( Testudo marginata ) and six Horsfield9s tortoises ( Testudo horsfieldi ) maintained under natural unfiltered sunlight in the UK. The numbers were too small to analyse the differences between the species, sexes or the time of the year statistically, but the concentrations of ionised calcium were generally higher in all the tort oises in the samples taken in August than in the samples taken in March and June

Despite gastrointestinal parasites being commonly diagnosed in captive tortoises throughout the UK, there is a lack of data regarding the prevalence. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in tortoises in the UK, and to investigate the factors affecting the prevalence of these parasites. Owners were invited to submit a faecal sample from their tortoise in conjunction with a completed questionnaire covering details of signalment and husbandry. Data from the questionnaires were analysed at the end of the study. Faecal analysis was performed on samples from Testudo hermanni, Testudo graeca and Testudo horsfieldii. This involved examination of direct wet preparations, a modified McMaster technique, passive NaCl flotation and Cryptosporidium staining. Of the 142 samples used, 130 were examined by the first three methods. 49 per cent were positive for one or more parasites. Of the positive samples, 67 per cent were positive for oxyurids, 28 per cent were positive for ascarids and 28 per cent were positive for protozoa (Balantidium, Nyctotherus or flagellates). Only 1/113 (0.8 per cent) samples was positive for Cryptosporidium. The most important risk factors for parasites were sex (F) and length of time (

Despite the popularity of keeping snakes in captivity, there has been limited investigation into the effects of UV radiation on vitamin D levels in snakes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of UV-b radiation on plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and ionised calcium concentrations in ball pythons (Python regius). Blood samples were taken from 14 ball pythons, which had never been exposed to UV-b light, to obtain baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and ionised calcium concentrations. Blood samples were then taken again from the same snakes 70 days later after one group (Group 1, n=6 females) were exposed to UV-b radiation daily, and the other group (Group 2, n=5 males and 3 females) were exposed to no UV-b radiation. Mean±sd 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels on day 0 in Group 1 were 197±35 nmol/l, and on day 70 were 203.5±13.8 nmol/l. Mean±sd 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels in Group 2 on day 0 were 77.7±41.5 nmol/l, and on day 70 were 83.0±41.9 nmol/l. Mean±sd ionised calcium levels at day 0 were 1.84±0.05 mmol/l for Group 1, and on day 70 were 1.78±0.07 mmol/l. Mean±sd ionised calcium levels at day 0 were 1.79±0.07 mmol/l for Group 2, and on day 70 were 1.81±0.05 mmol/l. No association was demonstrated between exposure to UV-b radiation and plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and ionised calcium concentrations. These results may provide baseline parameters for future studies in this and other snake species to determine ability to utilise UV-b light for vitamin D production.

Anesthesia and tube restraint methods are often required for computed tomography (CT) of snakes due to their natural tendency to curl up. However, these restraint methods may cause animal stress. The aim of this study was to determine whether the CT appearance of the lungs differs for ball pythons in a curled position vs. tube restraint. Whole body CT was performed on ten clinically healthy ball pythons, first in curled and then in straight positions restrained in a tube. Curved multiplanar reformatted (MPR) lung images from curled position scans were compared with standard MPR lung images from straight position scans. Lung attenuation and thickness were measured at three locations for each scan. Time for positioning and scanning was 12 ± 5 min shorter for curled snakes compared to tube restraint. Lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation declined from cranial to caudal on both straight and curled position images. Mean lung parenchyma thickness was greater in curled images at locations 1 (P = 0.048) and 3 (P = 0.044). Mean lung parenchyma thickness decreased between location 1 and 2 by 86-87% (straight: curled) and between location 1 and 3 by 51-50% (straight: curled). Mean lung attenuation at location 1 was significantly greater on curled position images than tube restraint images (P = 0.043). Findings indicated that CT evaluation of the lungs is feasible for ball pythons positioned in curled recumbency if curved MPR is available. However, lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation in some locations may vary from those acquired using tube restraint.

A 42-year-old female Testudo graeca was referred with a five-month history of a non-healing carapacial wound. Previous treatment had involved long-term antibiotic therapy and conscious debridement of necrotic tissue. On presentation an extensive deep wound with purulent discharge was visible on the right side of the carapace. A computed tomographic scan was performed to assess the extent of the wound. This revealed a large carapacial deficit with two underlying soft tissue masses. Surgical debridement was performed under general anaesthesia resulting in an even larger defect. Because of the extensive nature of the deficit, negative pressure wound therapy was applied to aid wound healing. A negative pressure of approximately 120 mmHg was maintained and bandages were changed every third day. Wound healing progressed rapidly and a healthy granulation bed was formed within 16 days.

Objectives Blood gas analysis is a well-recognized method to monitor pulmonary function, blood oxygenation, ventilation and acid–base status during general anaesthesia. The aim of this study was to report blood gas analysis results in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) obtained during general anaesthesia using a portable clinical analyser. Methods Thirty-two rabbits were premedicated with 0·2 mL/kg fentanyl and fluanisone. Anaesthesia was induced with 0·2 mg/kg midazolam and maintained with 2% isoflurane in oxygen via endotracheal tube. Arterial blood samples were taken from the central ear artery 10 minutes after induction of anaesthesia. Results Respiratory acidaemia was observed during anaesthesia. Mean ±sd (range) arterial blood pH was 7·33 ±0·08 (7·15 to 7·48). PaCO2 and PaO2 were, respectively, 55·02 ±10·5 (37·7 to 92·1) mmHg and 370·0 ±120·5 (67 to 561) mmHg. Base excess was 2·8 ±3·6 (−3 to 11) mmol/L, HCO3 was 28·73 ±3·07 (23·7 to 35·4) mmol/L and TCO2 was 30·4 ±3·2 (25 to 37) mmol/L. None of the rabbits developed haematoma during arterial blood collection or ischaemia of the pinna during the hospitalization period. Clinical Significance Arterial blood gas analysis is a safe and easy to perform diagnostic technique that can contribute to improved safety of rabbit anaesthesia, by providing information on the respiratory and metabolic status of the patient.

A 3-yr-old female corn snake, Pantherophis guttatus guttatus, was presented for clinical examination of anorexia and a coelomic mass. Radiographs and ultrasound demonstrated a fluid-filled mass in the cardiac region. Surgical exploration revealed an approximately 1.2-cm, round, multilobulated, fluid-filled, nodular lesion firmly attached to the left atrial wall. Resection was attempted but proved unsuccessful and the animal was euthanized. Histopathological examination of the lesion revealed a large cystic structure associated with a cluster of variably sized, vascular channels lined by a one-cell-thick layer of endothelium, consistent with a cardiac hemangioma of the left atrium. This, to the best of the authors' knowledge, is the first report of such an occurrence in a snake.