Search

Background: The effects of climate change, loss of pastureland to other land usage and presence of large carnivores are the main reasons for the increase in supplementary feeding of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Fennoscandia over the last decades. Feeding might expose reindeer to stress and increased animal-to-animal contact, leading to an increased risk of infectious disease transmission, such as infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC). As it can develop rapidly and be very painful, IKC is described as an important animal welfare concern and a potential source of economic loss. The aim of this study was to investigate the current presence of IKC and potential associations between IKC and supplementary feeding through an online questionnaire survey, distributed among reindeer herders in Norway and Sweden in 2021., Results: Seventy-six reindeer herders (33 from Norway and 43 from Sweden) responded to the questionnaire, representing 6% and 4% of the registered reindeer herding groups in Norway and Sweden, respectively. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was common, with 54 (71%) of the 76 herders that responded having observed clinical signs during the past 10 years. These signs were mainly observed as increased lacrimation, causing "wet cheeks", but also as keratitis and conjunctivitis. Autumn and winter were the seasons in which IKC was observed most. The herders reported several measures, such as slaughter and isolation of affected reindeer, to counteract the spread of disease. The herding year 2019/2020 was associated with reports of outbreaks of IKC in herds as well as being the herding year where most herders (80%) had performed supplementary feeding. A significant association was found between IKC and feeding performed in an enclosure (odds ratio = 15.20), while feeding on free-range areas had a non-significant, negative, relationship with the appearance of IKC outbreaks (odds ratio = 0.29). Finally, there was a trend in the data suggesting that IKC affected calves especially., Conclusions: Infectious keratoconjunctivitis is a common disease, mainly observed in winter and autumn. It usually has mild to moderately severe clinical signs. Our results imply that IKC is associated with stress and feeding situations and that calves might be more susceptible than adults, however, this needs to be confirmed with further studies, preferably at an individual animal level., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK), commonly known as pinkeye, has a marked negative impact on the economy of the cattle industry. Moraxella species, including Mor. bovis and Mor. bovoculi, which have been associated with this disease, colonize clinically healthy eyes as well, suggesting that there are intrinsic changes that may occur to the ocular microbiota or the involvement of additional unrecognized organisms that contribute to IBK. To evaluate this, 104 ocular swabs collected from eyes with IBK or clinically healthy eyes from 16 different cattle herds were subjected to 16 S rRNA gene PCR and next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis. Organisms detected were similar across the herds and there was no difference in the total number of bacterial groups detected among IBK cases and controls. However, the percentages of the different organisms detected varied between the two groups, including Moraxella spp., with more Moraxella spp. in eyes with IBK than controls. Further, using culture and whole genome NGS, a new species of Moraxella (suggested name Mor. oculobovii) was detected from the eyes of cattle from two farms. This strain is non-hemolytic on blood agar, is missing the RTX operon, and is likely a non-pathogenic strain of the bovine ocular microbiome. Alteration of the ocular microbiota composition may have a predisposing role, enhancing bacterial infection and the occurrence of clinical IBK. Future studies are required to evaluate if these changes are permanent or if there is a shift in the microbiome following recovery from the infection and how antibiotics might affect the microbiome., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pinkeye (a generic term to describe infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis) is a significant disease of cattle worldwide, impacting productivity and animal welfare. One commercial pinkeye vaccine, a systematically administered Moraxella bovis bacterin, has been available in Australia since 2007. This is the first field trial of the effectiveness of this vaccine for the prevention of naturally occurring disease in Australia. Extensively run beef herds in southwest Queensland that regularly experienced pinkeye were enrolled in the trial and animals were randomly allocated to vaccinated and control groups in different proportions in each herd. The subsequent incidence of clinical pinkeye between the two groups was compared for animals less than one-year-old. Data were analysed from 649 cattle from five herds over two pinkeye seasons: three herds of 390 calves from 1st November 2019 to 20th January 2020 and two herds of 259 calves from 23rd September 2020 to 21st April 2021. Pinkeye was common with 24% of all calves (156/649) contracting the disease during the trial. Univariable and multivariable binary logistic mixed-effect models were fitted to account for clustered data and potential residual confounding due to sex, weight, breed, coat colour, and periocular pigmentation. The incidence of pinkeye was not significantly different between vaccinated and control groups, both alone (p = 0.67) and after adjusting for sex and weight differences (p = 0.69). The vaccine was not protective against naturally occurring pinkeye under the field conditions., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Introduction. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis is a significant ocular disease found in confined sheep. Little information about the aetiological agents and their antimicrobial susceptibility is available. Gap Statement. There is limited information on the aetiological agents involved in keratoconjunctivitis outbreaks in sheep. Aim. The present research aimed to determine the bacterial aetiological factors involved in an outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in confined lambs. Methodology. Ocular swabs were collected from 23 randomly selected lambs, which were classified into three groups according to the severity of the lesion: group I ( N =6; no ocular involvement), group II ( N =8; less severe injuries) and group III ( N =9; more severe injuries). Isolation of aerobic bacteria and antimicrobial susceptibility tests were carried out. Molecular detection of Mollicutes was performed, and positive samples were tested to confirm the presence of the following species: Mycoplasma conjunctivae , Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri . Results. Moraxella sp. and Mollicutes were detected in all groups, but we inferred that Moraxella sp. are only significant in the early stages of the disease. M. conjunctivae was detected in all tested groups, while M. agalactiae was detected in samples of group III only. One strain of Moraxella sp. was resistant to erythromycin and showed intermedite resistance to tetracycline. Conclusion. The presence of these species confirms their importance in the aetiology of this disease, and the low resistance profile observed in the studied farm suggested an increased cure success rate.

A summary of available literature on the prevalence and estimated economic impacts of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) from around the world is made. Country-level prevalence of IBK has been reported only for the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. We provide an estimate of IBK prevalence rate by geographic climate and region accounting for cattle sub-species and age. Estimated prevalence worldwide is 2.78%. Historical economic impact assessments are available only for the United States, Australia, and United Kingdom. Rarely do assessments capture the full economic cost of the disease. Better data on prevalence and how treatment and prevention decisions modify disease impacts is required to estimate the global economic impact., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Pinkeye is an economically important ocular disease occurring in all cattle producing areas of Australia. This study was undertaken to estimate the frequency of occurrence of the disease in Australia and treatment costs of the disease to the cattle industry using the sales of popular pinkeye medications as a surrogate indicator. Monthly sales data for Orbenin® Eye Ointment, Opticlox® Eye Ointment and Terramycin® Pinkeye Aerosol were analysed. We first estimated the number of cattle that can be treated with a syringe or a can and then using the data of sales of these pinkeye medications and the total cattle population of Australia, estimated the incidence of pinkeye. Probability distributions were used to include uncertainty around the estimates. Costs to producers were estimated based on retail prices of these medications. The results indicated that 732,864 syringes of Orbenin® Eye Ointment, 134,800 syringes of Opticlox® Eye Ointment and 27,755 cans of Terramycin® Pinkeye Aerosol are sold in Australia per year. Based on some assumptions of the number of cases treated by these drugs and number of cases left untreated, the number of cattle affected by pinkeye each year in Australia was estimated to be 2.80 million (95 % PI: 1.76, 4.65) or 10.25 % (95 % PI: 6.43, 16.97) of the entire Australian cattle herd. The cattle industry is expected to lose AU$ 9.67 million (95 % PI: 8.56, 13.11) each year just considering the cost of these three drugs. The results suggest that losses due to pinkeye in the Australian cattle industry are considerably higher than previously thought and should be used to inform the development of disease prevention and control policies., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In late summer 2014, an outbreak of ocular disease occurred in the Norwegian muskox ( Ovibos moschatus ) population. Animals showed rings of pus around their eyes and one euthanized animal was diagnosed with acute keratoconjunctivitis. The DNA sequence analysis of eye-swab samples from this animal revealed a high abundance of Mycoplasma conjunctivae .

We analyzed 2 batches of environmental samples after a microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis outbreak in Taiwan. Results indicated a transmission route from a parking lot to a foot washing pool to a swimming pool and suggested that accumulation of mud in the foot washing pool during the rainy season might be a risk factor.

Mycoplasma conjunctivae is an obligate microparasite that causes Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) in Caprinae species. IKC is a long-recognised disease, but little attention has been paid to the mechanisms of transmission of the mycoplasma and its occurrence in locations other than the eyes. In this study, the presence of M. conjunctivae is assessed in the eyes, external ear canals (EEC), nasal cavity, and vagina of host species as well as in potential vectors, which may be involved in the transmission and persistence of infection within the host. M. conjunctivae was detected by qPCR in 7.2 % (CI 95% 4.7-11.0) of the ear swabs and 9.5 % (CI 95% 6.4-13.9) of the nasal swabs from Pyrenean chamois, Iberian ibex, domestic sheep and mouflon without statistical differences between species. Mycoplasma detection in nasal swabs was mostly associated with ocular infection (95.6%), but this was not the case for EEC (52.6%). Among the eye-positive ruminants, 27.3% were positive in ear swabs and 64.7% in nasal swabs, and the threshold cycle values of the qPCR were correlated only between eye and nasal swabs (p < 0.01; r 2  = 0.56). M. conjunctivae was detected in 1.7% - 7.1 % of Musca spp. captured during an IKC outbreak in Iberian ibex and in one out of three endemic sheep flocks. The results indicate that the transmission of M. conjunctivae may occur by direct contact with eye or nasal secretions and/or indirectly through flies. The M. conjunctivae DNA detection in EEC suggests that it can colonise the auditory tract, but the significance for its persistence within the host should be further assessed., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We describe the clinicopathologic findings, relative prevalence, and pathogens associated with infectious keratoconjunctivitis in mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) in Wyoming. Seventeen cases with ocular lesions were identified among 1,036 mule deer postmortem submissions (1.6%) in an ~16 y period. Sixteen cases were observed in winter and most were in male (15 cases) and juvenile (13 cases) deer. Blindness was the most commonly reported clinical sign (10 cases). A herpesvirus was detected only in the 4 cases of bilateral necrotizing bulbar conjunctivitis. Phylogenetic analysis of glycoprotein amino acid sequences consistently identified this virus as a novel alphaherpesvirus. In 2 of these herpesvirus-positive cases, Actinomyces sp. and Moraxella ovis were also identified. Trueperella pyogenes was identified in 4 cases of unilateral ulcerative keratitis, keratoconjunctivitis, and panophthalmitis. M. ovis was cultured from 3 cases of bilateral conjunctivitis and keratoconjunctivitis. In the remaining cases, isolates included Moraxella bovis (1 case), Staphylococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp. (2), Flavobacterium sp. and Pseudomonas sp. (2), Escherichia coli and Enterobacter sp. (1), and bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (1). No pathogens were identified in 2 cases. The relative prevalence of keratoconjunctivitis in mule deer in Wyoming appears to be low, and this disease is most commonly associated with infection by a novel alphaherpesvirus, T. pyogenes, and M. ovis.

The aim of this study was to report the emergence of a recombinant human mastadenovirus (HAdV) type 85 (HAdV-85) and to describe its genomic and clinical characteristics. The strains were detected and identified in Japan in cases of adenoviral conjunctivitis including epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC). The type was designated as HAdV-85 based on the novel combination of penton base (P = HAdV-37), hexon (H = HAdV-19), and fiber (F = HAdV-8). The whole genome sequence determined for HAdV-85 was compared against sequences of other types in the same species. The results of the phylogenetic analysis suggested a recombinant origin between HAdV-53 and HAdV-64, which have been two major causes of adenoviral EKC in Japan over the past decade. During the period between 2008 and 2016 in Kumamoto city, southwest of Japan, 311 cases diagnosed with conjunctivitis were diagnosed as being the consequence of adenoviral infections. Among them, 11 cases were determined to have been caused by HAdV-85 since 2015. Thus, HAdV-85 could be an emerging causative agent of adenoviral conjunctivitis., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Adenovirus-associated epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (A-EKC) is a cause of large and prolonged outbreaks in ophthalmology clinics and can result in substantial morbidity. A-EKC outbreaks are often the result of contaminated ophthalmologic equipment, surfaces, or hands. Contaminated multidose eye drops are also a likely culprit, but few prior studies provide clear epidemiologic evidence that adenovirus transmission resulted from contamination of eye drops. We describe an A-EKC outbreak at a large, hospital-affiliated eye clinic that affected 44 patients. The unique epidemiology of the outbreak provides strong evidence that contaminated multidose dilating eye drops resulted in adenovirus transmission. Removal of multidose eye medication from the clinic, combined with case finding, enhanced infection control and enhanced environmental cleaning, led to rapid control of the outbreak., (Copyright © 2018 Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Given the causative parasite hypothesis for tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis (TELC), we conducted an analytical case-control study of all children with tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis seen in the ophthalmology department of Laquintinie hospital in Douala during the period from January 2nd to April 30, 2015., Results: We identified 64 cases of tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis out of 550 children seen; a hospital prevalence of 11.6%; thirteen cases (eight boys and five girls) did not meet inclusion criteria, and 51 cases were included, 31 boys (60.8%) and 20 girls (39.2%) with a male/female (M/F) sex-ratio of 1.41. For controls, we included 28 males (54.9%) and 23 girls (45.1%) for a M/F sex-ratio of 1.22. The prevalence of tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis in boys was 12.1%, and for girls it was 7.1% in the case group. Stage II was the most frequent at 29 cases (56.9%), as well as the mixed form at 31 cases (60.8%). The frequency of intestinal parasites was 14 cases (27.5%) in the group of tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis patients and 6 cases (11.8%) in the control group (P=0.08). Entamoeba histolytica in its cystic form was the most intestinal parasite found in both groups, 10 cases for tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis (19.6%) and 6 cases in the control groups (11.8%). The mean serum IgE among cases was 81.2 IU/ml, while in the controls it was 15.6 IU/ml (P=0.001) CONCLUSION: There is no relationship between intestinal parasitic infection and the occurrence of tropical endemic limbo-conjunctivitis., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Clinicians can evaluate the relevance of an outbreak based on its basic reproductive number (R 0 ). So far there has been no report on the R 0 of Mycoplasma conjunctivae which is a major cause of goats' conjunctivitis in Taiwan. The present study sought to investigate an outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) by Mycoplasma conjunctivae (MC) in an indoor dairy goat barn. The epidemiological curve was recorded to build a susceptible-infected-recovered model and to estimate the R 0 by three methods In the investigated goat barn, 60% (31/55) goats showed degrees of IKC signs. The number of infected animals increased quickly after 15days, but slowed down after 41days. The sick goats began to recover after 30days. The epidemic fully stopped after 81days. The estimated R 0 ranged from 1.35 to 4.46. In summary, this is the first MC report in Taiwan, and the first one to estimate the R 0 of MC., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) is a contagious eye disease primarily caused by Mycoplasma conjunctivae in domestic and wild Caprinae. Chlamydophila species have also been detected in ruminants with IKC. The objectives of this study are to investigate the ocular infection of M. conjunctivae and Chlamydiaceae and assess its interaction in relation to IKC in sheep and goats from remote communities around the Central Karakoram National Park in Pakistan, performing a combination of cross-sectional and case-control study design. Mostly asymptomatic and endemic infections of M. conjunctivae and Chlamydiaceae were found in sheep (19.3 per cent and 4.5 per cent, respectively) and goats (9.5 per cent and 1.9 per cent, respectively) from all communities, assessed by qPCR. Prevalence significantly differed between species only for M. conjunctivae (P=0.0184), which was also more prevalent in younger sheep (P<0.01). Chlamydophila pecorum was identified by sequencing and was related with IKC only when coinfection with M. conjunctivae occurred, which suggest a synergic interaction. Cluster analysis of M. conjunctivae strains revealed higher diversity of strains than expected, evidenced interspecific transmission and suggested a higher local livestock trade than previously assumed. These results highlight the widespread occurrence of M conjunctivae in sheep worldwide and its implications for wildlife should be assessed from a conservation perspective., Competing Interests: Competing interests: XFA was supported by the FI DGR programme from the Government of Catalonia., (© British Veterinary Association (unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

OBJECTIVE To assess the association between a commercially available vaccine against Moraxella bovis and cumulative incidence of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) from processing to weaning (primary objective) and body weight at weaning (secondary objective). DESIGN Randomized blinded controlled trial. ANIMALS 214 calves (≥ 2 months of age) born in the spring of 2015 at an Iowa State University cow-calf research unit with no visible lesions or scars on either eye. PROCEDURES Calves were randomly allocated to receive SC administration of a single dose of a commercial vaccine against M bovis (112 enrolled and 110 analyzed) or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (111 enrolled and 104 analyzed). Calves were monitored for signs of IBK from treatment to weaning, and body weight at weaning was recorded. People involved in calf enrollment and outcome assessment were blinded to treatment group assignment. Cumulative incidence of IBK and weaning weight were compared between vaccinated and unvaccinated calves; the effect measure was the risk ratio and mean difference, respectively. RESULTS IBK was detected in 65 (59.1%) vaccinated calves and 62 (59.6%) unvaccinated calves (unadjusted risk ratio, 0.99; 95% confidence interval, 0.79 to 1.24) during the study period. No significant difference in weaning weights was identified between vaccinated and unvaccinated calves (unadjusted effect size, 4.40 kg [9.68 lb]; 95% confidence interval, -3.46 to 12.25 kg [-7.61 to 26.95 lb]). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that the commercially available M bovis vaccine was not effective in reducing the cumulative incidence of IBK or increasing weaning weight in beef calves.

To explore the treatment method and preventive measures on epidemic keratoconjunctivitis. 108 patients with epidemic keratoconjunctivitis who received treatment in our hospital from January, 2015 to September, 2015.were selected. These patients were treated with interferon eye drops, Ganciclovir ophthalmic gel, and alternating eye treatment of tobramycin-dexamethasone eye drops and diclofenac sodium eye drops. Meanwhile, health education was also performed among patients, so as to promote the recovery of the disease as soon as possible and to prevent the spread of the disease Among the 108 patients, there were 101 patients recovered. 7 patients had cornea remained sub epithelial round hoary haze, including 2 patients with evident cornea remained sub epithelial round hoary haze due to the occurrence of glucocorticoid-induced intraocular pressure and the tobramycin and dexamethasone eye drops were suspend. The clinical cure rate was 91.79%. There was no pathophoresis to health patients among the 108 patients. Active treatment of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, combined with health education and publicity could increase the clinical cure rate and control the transmit of the disease spread.

Background: Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) is an ocular infectious disease caused by Mycoplasma conjunctivae which affects small domestic and wild mountain ruminants. Domestic sheep maintain the pathogen but the detection of healthy carriers in wildlife has raised the question as to whether M. conjunctivae may also persist in the wild. Furthermore, the factors shaping the dynamics of IKC outbreaks in wildlife have remained largely unknown. The aims of this study were (1) to verify the etiological role of M. conjunctivae in IKC outbreaks recorded between 2002 and 2010 at four study sites in different regions of France (Pyrenees and Alps, samples from 159 Alpine ibex Capra ibex, Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra and Pyrenean chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica); (2) to establish whether there existed any epidemiological links between the different regions through a cluster analysis of the detected strains (from 80 out of the 159 animals tested); (3) to explore selected pathogen, host and environmental factors potentially influencing the dynamics of IKC in wildlife, by joining results obtained by molecular analyses and by field observations (16,609 animal observations). All of the samples were tested for M. conjunctivae by qPCR, and cluster analysis was based on a highly variable part of the lppS gene., Results: We documented infections with M. conjunctivae in epidemic and endemic situations, both in symptomatic and asymptomatic animals. The identified M. conjunctivae strains were site-specific and persisted in the local wild population for at least 6 years. In epidemic situations, peaks of cases and disease resurgence were associated with the emergence of new similar strains in a given area. Social interactions, seasonal movements and the landscape structure such as natural and anthropogenic barriers influenced the spatio-temporal spread of IKC. Adults were more affected than young animals and host susceptibility differed depending on the involved strain., Conclusion: Our study indicates that IKC is a multifactorial disease and that M. conjunctivae can persist in wildlife populations. The disease course in individual animals and populations is influenced by both host and mycoplasma characteristics, and the disease spread within and among populations is shaped by host behavior and landscape structure.

Background: To explore the prevalence of lacrimal duct obstruction in patients with infectious keratitis, and the necessity of lacrimal duct dredge in the treatment of human infectious keratitis. Methodology/Principle Findings: The design is prospective, non-control case series. Thirty-one eyes from twenty-eight continuous patients with infectious keratitis were included in this study. The presence/absence of lacrimal duct obstruction was determined by the lacrimal duct irrigation test. The diagnosis of infectious keratitis was made based on clinical manifestations, cornea scraping microscopic examination and bacterial/fungus culture. Diagnosis of viral keratitis was set up based on the recurrent history, deep neovascularization and typical outlook of the cornea scar. The treatment of keratitis included drugs, eye drops or surgery, while treatment of chronic dacryocystitis was lacrimal duct dredging with supporting tube implantation surgery. In the thirty-one eyes with infectious keratitis, fifteen suffered from fungal keratitis (48%), two bacterial keratitis (6%), and fourteen viral keratitis (45%). Eleven eyes (35%) from ten patients with infectious keratitis also suffered from lacrimal duct obstruction. In those cases, six eyes also suffered from lower canalicular obstruction, three nasolacrimal duct obstruction and chronic dacryocystitis, one a combination of upper and lower canalicular obstruction, one upper canalicular obstruction. After local and systemic applications of anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory drugs, twenty-eight eyes (90%) recovered within three weeks, while the ulceration of three patients required the lacrimal duct dredging and supporting tube implantation surgery for the healing. Conclusions: Herein, we first report that the prevalence of infectious keratitis is closely correlated to the occurrence of lacrimal duct obstruction. When both confirmed, simultaneous treatment of keratitis and lacrimal duct obstruction promptly is required. Further evaluation of mechanism, prevention and control of the diseases are warranted., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the clinical and corneal microbial profile of infectious keratitis in a high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence setting in rural South Africa. Data in this cross-sectional study were collected from patients presenting with symptoms of infectious keratitis (n = 46) at the ophthalmology outpatient department of three hospitals in rural South Africa. Corneal swabs were tested for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2), varicella zoster virus (VZV) and adenovirus DNA by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and for bacteria and fungi by culture. Based on clinical history, disease characteristics and laboratory results, 29 (63 %) patients were diagnosed as viral keratitis, including 14 (48 %) viral keratitis cases complicated by bacterial superinfection, and 17 (37 %) as bacterial keratitis. VZV and HSV-1 DNA was detected in 11 (24 %) and 5 (11 %) corneal swabs, respectively. Among clinically defined viral keratitis cases, a negative viral swab was predominantly (93 %) observed in cases with subepithelial inflammation and was significantly associated with an increased duration of symptoms (p = 0.003). The majority of bacteria cultured were Gram-positive (24/35), including Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus. Viral aetiology was significantly associated with a history of herpes zoster ophthalmicus (p < 0.001) and a trend was observed between viral aetiology and HIV infection (p = 0.06). Twenty-one (47 %) keratitis cases were complicated by anterior uveitis, of which 18 (86 %) were HIV-infected cases with viral keratitis. The data implicate a high prevalence of herpetic keratitis, in part complicated by bacterial superinfection and/or uveitis, in HIV-infected individuals presenting with infectious keratitis in rural South Africa.

Background: Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) in Eurasian semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) is a multifactorial disease, associated to infectious agents such as Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) and various species of bacteria, but environmental factors may also be necessary to initiate the disease. Little effort seems to have been invested in addressing the herder`s experience with this disease. An information letter with a link to an online questionnaire was sent to 410 herding community representatives in Norway and Sweden., Results: Sixty-three herders responded, 76 % of these having reindeer in Norway and 24 % in Sweden. Thirty-three herders (55 %) responded that they had seen this disease during the preceding year (2010) and 23 (38 %) that they had seen it in previous years (2009 or earlier). The majority (67 %) claimed that only 1-5 animals in their herd were affected at one time, whereas three herders (7 %) responded that more than 30 animals had been affected. No environmental factor could be singled out as significantly associated with the appearance of IKC, but when categorizing the number of contact herds for each herd (i.e. sharing pastures, corrals etc.), IKC was observed more often in herds with many (>25) contact herds. The questionnaire revealed that a veterinarian is not always available for reindeer herders, but also that a veterinarian seldom is contacted for this disease. None of the herders practiced isolation of a diseased animal from the rest of the herd when IKC was observed. Slaughter was the action most commonly initiated by the herders in response to IKC, whereas the veterinarian usually prescribed antibiotics, usually an ophthalmic ointment, alone or combined with systemic treatment. The herders claimed that IKC and other diseases had less importance than predators concerning loss of animals., Conclusions: IKC is to be considered a common disease, observed in 55 % of the herds (2010), typically affecting 1-5 animals, although larger outbreaks (>30 animals) occur. The herders usually slaughtered affected animals rather than consulting a veterinarian for medical treatment.

Human adenovirus type 8 (HAdV-8) is the most common causative agent of a highly contagious eye disease known as epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC). HAdV-8 strains have been classified into genome types HAdV-8A to 8K and HAdV/D1 to D12 according to restriction endonuclease analysis. This review focuses on the significance of HAdV-8 as an agent of EKC. Molecular analysis of HAdV-8 genome types HAdV-53 and HAdV-54 was performed to reveal potential genetic variation in the hexon and fiber, which might affect the antigenicity and tropism of the virus, respectively. On the basis of the published data, three patterns of HAdV-8 genome type distribution were observed worldwide: (1) genome types restricted to a microenvironment, (2) genome types distributed within a country, and (3) globally dispersed genome types. Simplot and zPicture showed that the HAdV-8 genome types were nearly identical to each other. HAdV-54 is very close to the HAdV-8P, B and E genomes, except in the hexon. In a restriction map, HAdV-8P, B, and E share a very high percentage of restriction sites with each other. Hypervariable regions (HVRs) of the hexon were conserved and were 100% identical among the genome types. The fiber knob of HAdV-8P, A, E, J and HAdV-53 were 100% identical. In phylogeny, HVRs of the hexon and fiber knob of the HAdV-8 genome types segregated into monophyletic clusters. Neutralizing antibodies against one genome type will provide protection against other genome types, and the selection of future vaccine strains would be simple due to the stable HVRs. Molecular analysis of whole genomes, particularly of the capsid proteins of the remaining genome types, would be useful to substantiate our observations., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK), also known as pinkeye, is the most costly eye disease of cattle. The principal etiologic agent of IBK is the Gram-negative bacterium Moraxella bovis. However, there have been reports of IBK outbreaks associated with Moraxella bovoculi. A retrospective study of IBK diagnostic cases submitted from July 1, 2010 through October 31, 2013 was conducted. Included in the study were 1,042 Moraxella isolates from 1,538 swabs of lacrimal secretions collected from 282 herds from 30 U.S. states. Moraxella isolates were identified to the species level and were composed of M. bovoculi (701 isolates), M. bovis (295 isolates), Moraxella ovis (5 isolates), and other Moraxella spp. (41). Minimum inhibitory concentrations required for 90% growth inhibition (MIC90) was calculated for representative isolates. The MIC90 values for both M. bovis and M. bovoculi were as follows: ampicillin and ceftiofur: ≤0.25 µg/ml; clindamycin: 2 µg/ml; danofloxacin and enrofloxacin: ≤0.12 µg/ml; florfenicol: 0.5 µg/ml; gentamicin: 1 µg/ml; neomycin: 4 µg/ml; tulathromycin: 2 µg/ml; and tylosin: 8 µg/ml. The MIC90 values for M. bovoculi included the following: chlortetracycline: ≤0.5 µg/ml; oxytetracycline: 4 µg/ml; penicillin: 0.25 µg/ml; spectinomycin: 32 µg/ml; sulfadimethoxine: >256 µg/ml; tiamulin: 1 µg/ml; and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: 4 µg/ml. For M. bovis, MIC90 values included the following: chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline: 1 µg/ml; penicillin: ≤0.12 µg/ml; spectinomycin: 16 µg/ml; sulfadimethoxine: ≤256 µg/ml; tiamulin: ≤0.5 µg/ml; and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: ≤2 µg/ml. The current work describes the frequency of isolation and differences in antimicrobial sensitivity observed among Moraxella isolates from case submissions., (© 2014 The Author(s).)

Background: Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) is a clinical condition affecting eyes of domestic and wild Caprinae worldwide, and Mycoplasma conjunctivae is considered the primary causative agent of IKC in sheep, goats and wild Caprinae. Domestic ruminants from high mountain habitats share grazing areas with wild mountain ungulates, such as chamois (Rupicapra spp.), Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) and European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), and domestic sheep seem to act as M. conjunctivae reservoir. In this study, the presence of M. conjunctivae in domestic sheep and goats from the two main mountain ranges of Northern Spain, the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, has been investigated., Results: Eye swabs were obtained from 439 domestic small ruminants selected from flocks that seasonally graze in alpine meadows during three consecutive years (2011-2012-2013). Seventy-nine out of the 378 domestic sheep (20.9%) tested positive to a M. conjunctivae specific real time-PCR (rt-PCR) in at least one eye, whereas all the 61 sampled domestic goats were negative. Statistically significant higher prevalence and higher proportion of infected flocks (P < 0.001) was observed in the Pyrenees (25.7%; 12 flocks out of 13), where M. conjunctivae is widespread and probably endemic in domestic sheep, than in the Cantabrian Mountains (7.8%; one flock out of six). Twenty-five sheep (three from the Pyrenees and 22 from the Cantabrian Mountains) which showed clinical signs consistent with infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) were negative by rt-PCR. In contrast, 62 out of the 71 (87.3%) M. conjunctivae-positive sheep from the Pyrenees and the eight positive sheep from the Cantabrian Mountains were asymptomatic., Conclusions: This study provides rt-PCR-based evidences of M. conjunctivae maintenance in domestic sheep, as well as a relationship between prevalence in domestic sheep and previously reported M. conjunctivae and IKC in wild ruminants. Domestic goats do not seem to play an important role in the epidemiology of M. conjunctivae in alpine habitats from Northern Spain.

This work is an example of cooperation between veterinary and human medicine being fully complementary and at the same time, indispensable to improve our knowledge on animal chlamydiosis. This study investigated the existence of ocular chlamydiae and determined the prevalence of its presence, chlamydiosis, in asymptomatic and diseased farm animals and adjacent humans. Data were obtained by the omp2 gene family Chlamydiaceae-specific PCR. Two hundred cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats and 44 human specimens were also examined. Conjunctival swabs from both the eyes were collected from all animals and humans using cotton swabs. Samples were tested for chlamydiae by Vero cells tissue culture, chicken embryo, modified Gimenez staining, direct fluorescein-conjugated monoclonal antibody staining (FA), immunoperoxidase, CFT and PCR. The PCR-RFLP revealed that Chlamydophila psittaci demonstrated in the conjunctival samples of cattle (68% asymptomatic and 88% diseased), of buffalo (68% asymptomatic and 72% diseased), of sheep (68% asymptomatic and 80% diseased), of goat (76% asymptomatic and 92% diseased) and of humans (77% asymptomatic and 82% diseased). The Cp. psittaci was the only chlamydiae demonstrated in all of the ocular conjunctival samples, which confirms the prevalence of Cp. psittaci in this population of animals and adjacent humans. Statistically, the animal species factor was calculated and was found to be of no significance. Yet, there appeared to be a significant difference in the percentage of animal that tested positive using the different methods. Detection of Cp. psittaci in most samples confirms the prevalence of Cp. psittaci in this population of animals and adjacent humans., (© 2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Between 2006 and 2008, an outbreak of Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) affected Pyrenean chamois Rupicapra p. pyrenaica, an endemic subspecies of mountain ungulate that lives in the Pyrenees. The study focused on 14 mountain massifs (180,000 ha) where the species' population is stable. Cases of IKC were detected in ten of the massifs and, in five of them, mortality was substantial. The outbreak spread quickly from the first location detected, with two peaks in mortality that affected one (2007) and three (2008) massifs. In the latter, the peak was seasonal (spring to autumn) and, in the former, the outbreak persisted through winter. To identify the outbreak's aetiology, we examined 105 Pyrenean chamois clinically affected with IKC. TaqMan rt-PCR identified Mycoplasma conjunctivae in 93 (88.5%) of the chamois. Another rt-PCR detected Chlamydophila spp. in 14 of chamois, and 12 of those had mixed infections with mycoplasmas. In the period 2000-2007, the chamois population increased slightly (λ 1.026) but decreased significantly during the IKC outbreak (λ 0.8, 2007-2008; λ 0.85, 2008-2009) before increasing significantly after the outbreak (λ 1.1, 2009-2010). Sex-biased mortality shifted the adult sex ratio toward males (from 0.6 to 0.7 males per female) and reduced productivity slightly. Hunting was practically banned in the massifs where chamois experienced significant mortality and allowed again after the outbreak ended. Long-term monitoring of wild populations provides a basis for understanding the impacts of disease outbreaks and improves management decisions, particularly when species are subject to extractive exploitation.

Mycoplasma conjunctivae are etiological agents of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), commonly known as pink-eye in domestic sheep, goats and other wild animals in many parts of the world. A few young Lohi lambs maintained at Livestock Experiment Station (LES), Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan showed clinical signs and symptoms of conjunctivitis, keratitis, severe lacrimation and varying degree of blindness. During January to March, 2011, a total of 36 ocular swabs were collected from IKC affected animals and were processed for isolation, identification, and characterization of M. conjunctivae. Sixteen (44.44 %) out of 36 samples showed turbidity in PPLO broth. Twelve (75 %) out of 16 broth samples showed colony growth on PPLO agar. All 16 (44.44 %) out of 36 turbid broth samples, 12 (75 %) out of 16 cultured on agar plate samples, and 21 (59 %) out of 36 sheep ocular direct swab samples were found positive for M. conjunctivae through polymerase chain reaction test by using M. conjunctivae-specific primer pair McoF1 and McoR1 and detecting a 750 base pair fragment on agarose gel. Topical application of 0.5 % sterile solution of gentamycin (100 mg/ml) (Gentafar 10 %, FARVET, Netherlands) proved suitable for the treatment of IKC in Lohi lambs as all clinical signs of IKC disappeared after 5 days of treatment with this antibiotic. This is the first report about the prevalence, molecular diagnosis, and treatment of M. conjunctivae in Lohi sheep affected with infectious keratoconjunctivitis at LES, Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan.

Mycoplasma conjunctivae, the causative agent of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), was recently detected in asymptomatic Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex). This suggested that an external source of infection may not be required for an IKC outbreak in wildlife but might be initiated by healthy carriers, which contradicted previous serologic investigations in chamois. Our aims were to 1) assess the prevalence of M. conjunctivae among asymptomatic ibex and Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) and its frequency in IKC-affected animals, 2) determine mycoplasma loads in different disease stages, and 3) characterize the M. conjunctivae strains involved. Eye swabs from 654 asymptomatic and 204 symptomatic animals were collected in diverse Swiss regions between 2008 and 2010, and tested by TaqMan real-time PCR. Data analysis was performed considering various patterns of IKC occurrence in the respective sampling regions. Strains from 24 animals were compared by cluster analysis. Prevalence of M. conjunctivae was 5.6% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.7-8.1%) in asymptomatic ibex and 5.8% (CI: 3.0-9.9%) in asymptomatic chamois, with significant differences between years and regions in both species. Detection frequency in symptomatic animals was significantly higher during IKC outbreaks than in nonepidemic situations (i.e., regular but low incidence or sporadic occurrence). Mycoplasma load was significantly lower in eyes from healthy carriers and animals with mild signs than from animals with moderate and severe signs. Although some strains were found in both asymptomatic and diseased animals of the same species, others apparently differed in their pathogenic potential depending on the infected species. Overall, we found a widespread occurrence of M. conjunctivae in wild Caprinae with and without IKC signs. Our results confirm the central role of M. conjunctivae in outbreaks but suggest that other infectious agents may be involved in IKC cases in nonepidemic situations. Additionally, presence and severity of signs are related to the quantity of M. conjunctivae in the eyes rather than to the strain. We propose that individual or environmental factors influence the clinical expression of the disease and that persistence of M. conjunctivae in populations of wild Caprinae cannot be excluded.

Problem Addressed: Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is an ocular disease that causes substantial weight loss in beef calves., Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the association between Moraxella bovoculi, Moraxella bovis and Moraxella ovis and IBK incidence., Methods and Approach: A cohort design was used. From 239 calves and 478 eyes, 77 randomly chosen eyes were monitored for M. bovoculi, M. bovis, M. ovis and IBK incidence over 4 months. One hypothesis tested was that IBK hazard in eyes was not associated with detection of M. bovoculi, M. bovis and M. ovis. A secondary hypothesis tested that IBK cases were not associated with increased prevalence of M. bovoculi, M. bovis and M. ovis., Results: 23% of 77 eyes developed IBK. M. ovis was identified in one IBK-negative eye. The adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for IBK incidence from eyes where M. bovoculi or M. bovis were recovered prior to disease occurrence were not statistically significant (M. bovoculi HR=1.38, 95% CI: 0.54-3.53, p=0.49, M. bovis HR=1.60, 95% CI: 0.48-5.53, p=0.44). The adjusted hazard ratio for M. bovoculi in IBK lesions was 6.45 (95% CI: 3.35-12.44, p<0.001). The adjusted hazard ratio for M. bovis in IBK lesions was 2.33 (95% CI: 1.22-4.45, p=0.01)., Conclusion: A temporal association between prior exposure to M. bovoculi or M. bovis and subsequent IBK incidence was not demonstrated. However, M. bovoculi and M. bovis are more frequently recovered from eyes with IBK lesions than unaffected eyes and this provides weak evidence for a causal role., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Listerial keratoconjunctivitis or silage eye has increasingly been reported in ruminants in recent years. Although the disease has always been associated with silage feeding, its cause, pathogenesis, and epidemiology remain to be fully disclosed. Clinical courses include signs of keratoconjunctivitis and uveitis and cases recover without any residual lesions after antibiotic therapy. More epidemiologic and clinical as well as experimental studies are required to determine this poorly defined condition so that preventive measures could be established., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is a painful ocular disease affecting cattle worldwide. The publications documenting this condition focus on what is the accepted cause of IBK--Moraxella bovis. This article draws on experience and recorded data made at the time of the initial examination and follow-up visits. Laboratory culture of ocular swabs was undertaken where appropriate. Diagnosis of IBK is usually based on clinical signs, environment, and history. Misdiagnosis of the organisms involved is a genuine possibility. This article focuses on recent outbreaks of bovine ocular disease in the United Kingdom in three counties over a 12-month period., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In 2005 a Mycoplasma species was isolated from ocular-conjunctival swabs from an adult male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) from the Valle d'Aosta Region, Northern Italy. The animal suffered from bilateral ocular discharge with diffuse inflammation, severe corneal involvement of the left eye and mild corneal opacity of the right eye. Histologic examination revealed a keratoconjunctivitis characterized by lymphocytic and plasmacellular infiltration. Laboratory investigations of the isolate included culture, transmission electron microscopy, PCR, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, as well as DNA sequencing of the 16S rDNA gene. These tests identified the isolate as Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri large-colony serovar, an organism that has occasionally been associated with keratoconjunctivitis in goats. For a correct diagnosis, it is necessary to carry out laboratory investigations, as clinical cases of keratoconjunctivitis in wild ruminants are not always ascribable to Mycoplasma conjunctivae.

An outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) occurred in semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Troms County, Norway, in February 2009. Twenty-eight animals with clinical symptoms and 12 apparently healthy animals were investigated. They ranged in age from calves of the year to 4-year-old animals (mean, 1.9 years; standard deviation, +/-0.9). The seroprevalence of antibodies against cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) was 86% in animals with IKC and 42% in unaffected animals. For the 28 clinically affected animals, CvHV2 was detected by PCR in swabs obtained from the eye (82%), nose (64%), and vagina (24%), and CvHV2 was isolated from eye swabs from 8 animals. Virus was not isolated from clinically unaffected animals but was detected by PCR in eye swab samples from five of them. The viral activity, assessed by the ability to cause a cytopathic effect in cell culture, increased with the severity of clinical symptoms, but in severe clinical cases, virus was absent and secondary bacterial infections were dominant. Moraxella sp. isolates were obtained from seven animals, and those from two animals were identified as Moraxella bovoculi. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp., and Arcanobacterium pyogenes were also isolated. It is concluded that CvHV2, which is endemic in reindeer, can cause IKC, probably most commonly as a primary infection of calves. This can be a very painful and devastating disease of economic importance for reindeer herders. This is the first report of CvHV2 as the primary agent of IKC in reindeer. This is also the first isolation of this virus in reindeer under natural herding conditions.

Frequent outbreaks of infectious keratoconjunctivitis have been reported in wild Caprinae in Europe. While etiologic studies in the Alps indicate that the main etiologic agent is Mycoplasma conjunctivae, there are few reports from other mountain areas, such as the Pyrenees, where M. conjunctivae has never been reported. In 2006 and 2007, five adult Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica; two males and three females) and one adult male European mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon) were studied; they exhibited clinical symptoms of infectious keratoconjunctivitis such as blindness, corneal opacity, and ulceration. In three of the five chamois tested, and in the mouflon, Mycoplasma conjunctivae was identified from conjunctival swabs by means of a TaqMan(R) polymerase chain reaction based on the lipoprotein gene lppS. Cluster analysis indicated that the three southern chamois isolates form a cluster that is distinct from the mouflon isolate. This is the first report of M. conjunctivae in Pyrenean chamois, and it supports the hypothesis that M. conjunctivae also could be the main cause of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in areas other than the Alps, such as the Pyrenees.

Objective: To conduct a serologic survey and define pili antigenic variability via the serologic cross-reactivity of Moraxella bovis isolates from naturally occurring infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) outbreaks in Australia. This project applies to the development of an M bovis pili-based vaccine targeting Australian strains originating from intensive cattle producing regions., Procedure: Ocular swabs were collected from cattle affected with clinical signs of IBK from 25 veterinary practices. Standard criteria were used to identify 70 M bovis. Pure, piliated isolates were evaluated with a modified competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for cell-bound M bovis pili to determine their serologic cross-reactivity with pili of vaccinal bacterin strains EPP63, FLA64, and SAH 38., Results: Sixty-four percent (45/70) of M bovis isolates demonstrated homologous pili antigens to a vaccinal strain. M bovis isolates homologous to one of the three vaccinal strains were obtained in 77% (34/44) of IBK outbreaks sampled. No IBK outbreak had isolates homologous to more than one vaccinal strain; however, 29% (10/34) of outbreaks with a cross-reacting strain had non-cross-reacting strains as well., Conclusion: The similar prevalence of pilus antigen homology to strain FLA64 was observed with isolates derived from NSW, Tasmania, and Victoria, compared with results of prior smaller serologic studies, suggests that the common pilus antigens in M bovis within Australia have been relatively stable over the last 20 years. The prevalence of a limited number of pilus antigens in M bovis suggest that the application of a vaccine containing the bacterial strains EPP63, FLA64, and SAH38 may provide a useful management tool for reducing production losses associated with IBK in Australia.

Objectives: Determining the occurrence of leprosy amongst couples and establishing the type of leprosy in index and secondary cases., Methods: The characteristics of leprosy were studied between 1980 and 2000 in Atlántico Department located on the Colombian Caribbean Coast. Clinical histories of patients registered in the Leprosy Control Programme were reviewed. Clinical exams were performed and personal interviews carried out with couples suffering from leprosy., Results: Twenty-six married couples were found to be suffering from leprosy, representing 5.4% of leprosy cases detected during the study period. They were aged from 20 to 89. 65.4% of the index cases were men and 22 (84.6%) were multibacillary, lepromatous cases; two had indeterminate leprosy and two were suffering from tuberculoid leprosy. Sixty-one percent of the secondary cases were paucibacillary patients, 42% of them being tuberculoid. No paucibacillary cases were associated with multibacillary leprosy in the couples. Only two couples had consanguinity. None of the couples had had leprosy at the time of being married. The time between leprosy being detected in index cases and the disease being detected in secondary patients varied from 5 to 40 years. Disabilities were more common in the feet and to a higher degree in lepromatous index cases who had had the disease for a longer time than the secondary cases because these were more frequently paucibacillary patients who had a disease having shorter evolution., Conclusions: In spite of ongoing, prolonged contact, conjugal leprosy is not frequent and requires several years to develop in the second person. Lepromatous leprosy in index cases was more frequently associated with leprosy in the couple. When the primary case was paucibacillary, no multibacillary leprosy occurred in the secondary case.

An infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) epizootic in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) occurred in the Silver Bell Mountains, Arizona, USA, from 1 December 2003 to 31 March 2004. We used standard culture methods and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the 16S rRNA gene to test for the causative agents of IKC and other diseases reported to be associated with bighorn sheep populations. All bighorn sheep and domestic goat test results were negative except for Mycoplasma spp. and Branhamella spp. The culture and PCR results differed. Conjunctival swabs from four of 19 IKC-affected bighorn sheep tested by culture were positive for Mycoplasma spp., whereas 22 of 22 bighorn sheep samples tested by PCR were positive for Mycoplasma spp. None of 13 domestic goats tested positive by culture for Mycoplasma spp., whereas five of 16 tested positive by PCR. Three of 16 domestic goats and seven of 24 IKC-affected bighorn sheep tested positive for Branhamella spp. by culture. Bighorn sheep began showing clinical signs of IKC between 21 and 28 days following initial detection of domestic goats in bighorn sheep habitat. The IKC epizootic lasted 122 days, and individual bighorn sheep were blind for an average of 38.4 days. Given the clear potential for disease transmission to bighorn sheep, we recommend that land managers not allow the pasturing of domestic goats near occupied bighorn sheep habitat.

An unusually high incidence of infectious keratoconjunctivitis followed by pneumonia and arthritis was observed in beef calves of a managed herd. No Moraxella spp. or bacteria other than Mycoplasma spp. were obtained from conjunctival and nasal swabs. A strategy was designed for characterization of bovine mycoplasmas at species and strain level on the basis of a combination of molecular tools and the immunoblotting method. The strategy made it possible to rapidly assign the bacterium responsible for this outbreak to one of the phylogenetic clusters of bovine mycoplasmas delineated in this study and then to identify it as Mycoplasma bovis. The strain, designated Sar 1, showed a 100% 16S rDNA sequence identity with two European strains (120/81 and MC3386) isolated in Germany and Ireland, respectively, and hosts a vsp gene analog to the vspA, vsp422-4, and vsp422-8 genes of the M. bovis reference strain PG45T and of the field strain 422. The use of a cross-reactive rabbit serum developed against the Mycoplasma agalactiae immunodominant antigen P48 confirmed the molecular findings. The immunological response of calves against M. bovis was also investigated. This is the first report on the occurrence of M. bovis on the Island of Sardinia (Italy).

Five outbreaks of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (ikc) affecting alpine chamois and ibex in the western and central Swiss Alps were recorded in 2001 to 2003. Mycoplasma conjunctivae was identified from conjunctival swabs by means of a nested pcr in 27 of the 28 chamois tested. The outbreaks occurred in an area covering 1590 km(2). Deep valleys acted as a barrier to the spread of the disease. A total of 409 chamois and 33 ibex with clinical signs of ikc were reported. Most of the chamois were shot, primarily because they were blind or in poor general body condition. Almost a quarter were observed alive, and 16.9 per cent died as a result of ikc. Many of the affected animals were juveniles, and more females than males died of ikc. The disease was more common during the summer and autumn. The chamois affected by ikc were found at altitudes between 550 and 3200 m. The estimated overall mortality was less than 5 per cent, but more than 20 per cent may have died locally. Ibex affected by ikc were recorded in only two outbreaks. In six places, ibex with clinical signs of ikc were found before the first affected chamois appeared in the same area.

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is one of the most economically important diseases in preweaned calves. This study examined the health records of 45,497 calves over a 20-yr period to determine environmental and genetic factors influencing the incidence of IBK. Three data sets were analyzed with an animal model. The first data set (n = 41,986) evaluated environmental factors and genetic differences among nine purebred (Angus, Braunvieh, Charolais, Gelbvieh, Hereford, Limousin, Pinzgauer, Red Poll, and Simmental) and three composite breeds (MARC I, MARC II, and MARC III). Weaning weights of calves diagnosed with IBK were 8.9 kg lighter (P < 0.05) than weights of healthy calves. Incidence of IBK was related to age of the calf and the seasonal life cycle of the face fly (Musca autumnalis). Incidence of IBK increased in the spring (June), peaked during the summer months (July to September), and then decreased in the fall. Herefords were the most susceptible breed (P < 0.05) compared with all other purebreds and composites. Estimates of direct heritability for the incidence of IBK were generally low and ranged from 0.00 to 0.28 by breed. The maternal permanent environmental and genetic effects of the dam on the incidence of IBK were not significant for most breeds. The second data set (n = 9,606) was used to estimate heterosis for the incidence of IBK from a Hereford and Angus diallel design. The heterosis effect for the incidence of IBK in reciprocal Hereford/Angus crossbred calves was slightly negative (P = 0.12) but not large. The higher incidence of IBK in Angus x Hereford calves compared with Hereford x Angus calves (13.3 vs. 8.9%) suggests a maternal effect related to the incidence of IBK. Incidence of IBK in crossbred calves sired by tropically adapted breeds (Brahma, Boran, Tuli) compared with purebred and crossbred Bos taurus types was investigated in the third data set (n = 2,622). Crossbred calves sired by tropically adapted breeds had a lower incidence of IBK than most Bos taurus types (P < 0.05), but they were not different than either reciprocal crosses of Hereford and Angus or purebred Angus calves. Response to selection for decreasing the incidence of IBK is likely to be slow because of low heritability and low incidence in most breeds. Significant breed differences for incidence of IBK may be important to some producers and management systems.

Mycoplasma bovoculi and Mycoplasma bovis were both isolated from conjunctival swabs taken from young calves showing symptoms consistent with infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (pinkeye). No Moraxella spp. or other nonmycoplasma bacteria were isolated in association with this severe clinical outbreak. Based on laboratory tests and clinical observations, the first phase of the disease was likely pneumonic in nature, possibly caused by bovine respiratory syncytial virus and M. bovis. In the subsequent phase of the disease course, infection with both M. bovoculi and M. bovis resulted in ocular disease. A combination of microbiological, serological, and molecular diagnosticmethods was used to elucidate the etiology of the outbreak.

After several reports to the GD (Dutch Animal Health Service) from practitioners in The Netherlands concerning serious Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) in dairy herds during summer and autumn 2003, the GD has carried out a pilot-study to determine the most responsible agent. This pilot was thought to be important because of the painfulness of the illness and problems like, (for the farmer) an intensive and difficult therapy. Also the report of a Chlamydophilae infection causing IBK in a dairy herd in the UK prompted to this study. The most frequently isolated infectious agent in our study was Moraxella, probably M. bovis. For the presence of Chlamydophila, mycoplasmata or BHV1 viruses were no indications.

Contagious keratoconjunctivitis is a rather common disease in Norwegian sheep. Since the knowledge of its aetiology is limited, the present study was performed to determine the microorganisms involved. Local veterinarians throughout the country collected conjunctival swabs from both sick (n = 43) and healthy (n = 42) sheep on 15 farms with outbreaks of ovine keratoconjunctivitis, and further from healthy sheep (n = 50) on 17 farms not showing any signs of conjunctival disease. All samples were cultivated for bacteria and mycoplasma. Listeria monocytogenes was isolated from 3 cases (1%) in one single herd. Staphylococcus aureus (5%), Corynebacterium spp. (2%) and Escherichia coli (4%) were isolated only in herds with keratoconjunctivitis, but from both sick and healthy animals. Moraxella (Branhamella) ovis was isolated from 28% of sampled animals in affected herds and from 10% of sampled animals in healthy herds. The corresponding numbers for Moraxella spp. were 9%/12%, for Pseudomonas spp. 7%/8%, for Staphylococcus spp. 22//22%, for Bacillus spp. 12%/14%, for Micrococcus spp. 6%/2% and for Streptococcus/Enterococcus spp. 2%/2%. Mycoplasma conjunctivae was isolated from 16 animals with keratoconjunctivitis (37%) and from 3 animals without clinical signs (7%) in farms with keratoconjunctivitis. In farms without clinical signs of keratoconjunctivitis, M. conjunctivae was isolated in 4 animals (8%). To our knowledge, this is the first time M. conjunctivae has been isolated in Norway. Other predisposing agents found were Moraxella (Branhamella) ovis and Listeria monocytogenes. The etiological importance of different microorganisms in ovine keratoconjunctivitis seems to vary; some are probably only present as secondary invaders. Other possible causes of ovine keratoconjunctivitis in Norway, such as Chlamydia psittaci, remain to be investigated.

Background: Epidemic viral conjunctivitis is a highly contagious eye disease that occurs worldwide and is caused mainly by adenoviruses and enteroviruses. An 18-year analysis of the changes of pathogens and clinical signs in a subtropical and densely populated island presents certain special features., Methods: We retrospectively analyzed the clinical information and laboratory records of the conjunctivitis patients with positive conjunctival swabs from 1980 to 1997., Results: The positive rate of laboratory diagnosis of epidemic conjunctivitis was 50.0% (1,233/2,467). From 1980 to 1994, the predominant causative agent of adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis was adenovirus type 8 (Ad8), with six genotypes being evolved. Three of the new Ad8 genotypes each caused a new epidemic. After 1995 the predominant adenoviral pathogens shifted to Ad37 and Ad19, and no more Ad8 was isolated. Enterovirus type 70 (EV70) was isolated from four outbreaks of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (AHC) from 1980 to 1984, but rarely in later years. Coxsackievirus A type 24 variant (CA24v), which first appeared in 1985, appeared later as the causes of four major epidemics of AHC from 1985 to 1994. The overall clinical symptoms of viral conjunctivitis were more severe in the 1990s than in the 1980s., Conclusion: In southern Taiwan, outbreaks of adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis caused by new genomic variants could be associated with the long-term endemic co-circulation of Ad8, Ad19, and Ad37, while epidemics of CA24v AHC were caused mainly by introduction of new viral strains from neighboring countries. The aggravation of host symptoms in the 1990s needs further investigation and close follow-up.

Mycoplasma conjunctivae is the etiological agent of infectious keratoconjunctivitis, a highly contagious ocular infection that affects both domestic and wild Caprinae species in the European Alps. In order to study the transmission and spread of M. conjunctivae across domestic and wild Caprinae populations, we developed a molecular method for subtyping and identifying strains of M. conjunctivae. This method is based on DNA sequence determination of a variable domain within the gene lppS, a gene that encodes an antigenic lipoprotein of M. conjunctivae. This domain of lppS shows variations among different strains but remains constant upon generations of individual strains on growth medium and thus allows identification of individual strains and estimation of their phylogenetic intercorrelations. The variable domain of lppS is amplified by PCR using primers that match conserved sequences of lppS flanking it. Sequence analysis of the amplified fragment enables fine subtyping of M. conjunctivae strains. The method is applicable both to isolated strains and to clinical samples directly without requiring the cultivation of the strain. Using this method, we show that M. conjunctivae was transmitted between domestic and wild animals that were grazing in proximate pastures. Certain animals also presented infections with two different strains simultaneously.

Purpose: We investigated the potential of a multidose eyedrop bottle used by patients with adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis as a source for spreading infection., Design: Prospective consecutive case series., Methods: The contents of multidose eyedrop bottles given to patients with adenoviral conjunctivitis and in use for 1 week were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction for adenovirus after as long as 9 weeks of preservation at room temperature., Results: Of 26 patients with adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis, the eyedrop bottles of 19 patients (73%) were positive for adenovirus. The maximum detection interval was 9 weeks. Significantly higher prevalences of intrafamilial infection (P =.0098) and of corneal subepithelial opacity (P =.046) were observed among cases with adenoviral contamination than among cases without contamination., Conclusions: Multidose bottles used by patients with adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis are a possible vector for viral transmission for as long as 9 weeks.

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) caused by Mycoplasma conjunctivae is a highly contagious ocular infection which is common in domestic sheep and goats. In the European Alps, IKC is often observed in Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) and in Alpine ibex (Capra i. ibex), but the disease has also been described in other wild Caprinae in the Pyrenees and in New Zealand. The infection is characterised by inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea, and in the most advanced stages, the cornea is opaque or even perforated. In IKC outbreaks in chamois and ibex, spontaneous recovery is the most prevalent outcome of the disease. However, mortality can occasionally reach 30%. Recent studies in eastern Switzerland indicated that M. conjunctivae infection is not self-maintained in chamois. In contrast, the disease is endemic and self-maintained in the domestic sheep population. Spillover of the agent from sheep living in proximity during summer may be the origin of point-source epidemics in wild Caprinae. Flies are likely to play a central role in interspecific transmission of M. conjunctivae on alpine meadows. When outbreaks of IKC occur in wildlife, a special effort should be made to avoid unnecessary human disturbance in affected areas. However, animals presenting irreversible ocular lesions should be shot by professional gamekeepers to prevent suffering. Prevention of IKC in wild Caprinae should focus on preventing the spillover of M. conjunctivae from livestock. However, studies are required to evaluate the distribution of M. conjunctivae infection in domestic sheep in several countries and to assess the risk of IKC spillover from domestic animals to wildlife. In addition, immunological studies should be performed to develop tools which could lead to the control of M. conjunctivae infection in domestic sheep.

The occurrence of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) was assessed in alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) in Grisons (Switzerland) from 1950 to 1999. The first IKC outbreaks were reported in the 1950's. Since then, the number of affected subpopulations constantly increased and, by 1999, IKC outbreaks were reported in 39 of 51 (77%) chamois sub-populations. From 1992-99, a total of 243 chamois which died of the consequences of IKC were recorded. The number of cases differed between years, and a distinct seasonal trend was observed. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was more common during summer and autumn, with 48% of the cases recorded in August-October. Juveniles (< 4 yr of age) were mostly represented. To verify the presence of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in chamois we analyzed conjunctival swabs taken from animals affected with IKC. Among a sample of 28 affected chamois, M. conjunctivae was identified 14 times (50%). An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect specific M. conjunctivae antibodies in sera of alpine chamois with IKC. We performed a serologic investigation to assess whether M. conjunctivae infection is self-maintained in the chamois population in Grisons. In subpopulations with IKC oubreaks, seroprevalence was low (8%). Seroprevalence was even lower in subpopulations with recent IKC outbreaks (3%). We concluded that the M. conjunctivae infection is not self-maintained in alpine chamois in Grisons. The agent may originate in domestic sheep living in proximity to chamois during summer. Control of IKC in chamois should consider immunoprophylaxis in sheep or limiting interspecific transmission of M. conjunctivae.