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Propolis samples collected from Mwingi, Malindi, Uasin-gishu and Meru south districts in Kenya were extracted using ethanol and methanol. The methanol extracts were further partitioned into ethyl acetate, hexane and aqueous fractions. The extracts were concentrated and dried in vacuum evaporator. Their antioxidative activities were tested in linoleic acid-â-carotene system and in soybean oil. The extracts’ radical scavenging activities against 2,2–diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) were alsostudied. Significant differences were observed between the samples as well as within the samples’ various extracts. The ethanol extract of propolis (EEP) and the ethyl acetate fractions from all four samples had higher 2,2–diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) radical scavenging activity compared to the aqueous and the hexane extracts at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. Malindi EEP at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher radical scavenging activity (87.7%) than all the other EEP’s. The least radical scavenging activity was observed in Uasin-gishu EEP with73.3%. The Mwingi ethyl acetate extract at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml had 79.2% radical scavenging activity which was the highest observed amongst the ethyl acetate fractions and the least was in Uasin-gishu sample having 66.1% activity. The highest activity among the aqueous extracts was 7.1% in Meru South sample at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. Radical scavenging activity did not differ in all four aqueous fractions. There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) observed in the antioxidation activity of Mwingi, Meru south and Malindi EEPP’s, in the linoleic acid-â-carotene system at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. The EEP’s were the most active against oxidation of the system with a range of 61.7% in Uasin-gishu sample to 71.8% in Malindi sample while the aqueous was the least active with a range of 5.8% to 11.7% in Uasin-gishu and Malindi samples respectively. The EEP’s at a concentration of 1mg/ml showed greater activity against antioxidation of soybean oil compared to butylated hydroxyltoluene (BHT) at a concentration of 0.2 ìg/ml for thefirst 25 days of the test. After the 25th day, there was sharp increase in peroxide values in all the EEPs showing loss of antioxidation strength.Key words: Propolis, Radical scavenging, antioxidation activity

Fusarium head blight (scab) is a devastating disease of wheat and barley throughout the world. The disease has been reported worldwide wherever cereals are grown, cutting across diverse ecological and geographical distribution. In addition to being pathogenic to plants, which may cause severe crop yield reduction, many Fusarium species are also capable of producing mycotoxins deleterious to human health as secondary metabolites. Fusarium toxins are commonly detected in wheat, barley,maize, rice and beer. Traditionally malted barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is the principal ingredient in clear beer and Fusarium toxins incidences are of major concern. Moreover, the spent grain from the brewing industry is used as feed and presence of mycotoxins can lead to harmful effects on domestic animals and also find a way into the human food chain. Studies carried out in Kenya have revealed presence of various Fusarium species with ability to produce mycotoxins and presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize and beer. Based on the ubiquitous nature of Fusarium mold and the fact that barley production takes place in maize and wheatgrowing areas, this study set out to investigate the occurrence of Fusarium molds in Equatorial barley grown in Kenya and the ability of the isolates to produce selected mycotoxins. Grain samples were obtained from newly delivered barley lots originating from two regions and stored grain awaiting malting after break of dormancy from Kenya Maltings Ltd., Nairobi. The Fusarium isolates were identified to species level based on cultural and morphological characteristics. Additionally, they were screened in-vitro on rice cultures for their ability to produce Type A trichothecenes (T–2 toxin, HT–2 toxin, Diacetoxyscirpenol), Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol and nivalenol) and Zearalenone. Samples from all sources were contaminated with Fusarium, but at varying magnitudes - 50%, 33.3% and 25% for barley kernels originating from Timau, Olchoro and in-storage grain with no common history of origin, respectively. The distribution of the species showed some regional specificity. F. graminearum and F. poae predominated in kernels sourced from Olchoro region. All strains of F. graminearum produced both deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. F. poae strains and F. chlamydosporum did not produce detectable amounts of the screened mycotoxins. However, two inconclusively identified isolatesof Fusarium spp. isolated from Timau samples produced deoxynivalenol only. The study revealed that a number of toxigenic Fusarium spp. do occur in Equatorial barley grown in Kenya.

The objective of this study was to determine the nutritional and functional properties of Amaranthus cruentus grain grown in Kenya for preparation of a ready-to-eat product that can be recommended as infant complementary food. Amaranth grains were subjected to steeping and steam pre-gelatinization to produce a ready-to-eat nutritious product with improved solubility during reconstitution. The effect of processing on the functional and nutritional properties of amaranth grain was analyzed. Two blends were prepared from raw and processed amaranth grains. Standard procedures of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) were used to determine the proximate chemical composition. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) was used quantify amino acid, water soluble vitamins, α-tocopherols and phytates, while Atomic Absorption Flame Emission spectrophotometry was used to determine the mineral element composition. Fatty acid composition was determined using Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC). Tannin composition was determined using vanillin hydrochloric acid method. The overall results indicated that processing amaranth grain did not significantly affect its nutritional and physicochemical properties. Amaranth grain product was rich in protein with 0.5 g/10g of lysine, a limiting amino acid in cereals, and methionine, a limiting amino acid in pulses. The product had good amount 44.4 mg/100g of α-tocopherols important for infant development. The product was also rich in oleic acid (36.3%) and linoleic acid (35.9%) with some amounts of linolenic acid (3.4%) that are important for infant growth. It also had good amounts of minerals of importance such as potassium (324.4 mg/100g), phosphorous (322.8 mg/100g), calcium 189.1 (mg/100g), magnesium (219.5 mg/100g), iron (13.0 mg/100g) and zinc (4.8 mg/100g). Considering amaranth grain product fed to infant three times a day, at a reconstitution of 15% product, the levels of magnesium, manganese and tocopherols were far above the recommended intakes, while protein, phosphorous, iron, zinc, riboflavin and niacin were above the average requirements. Therefore, reconstituting the product with milk would enrich the deficient nutrients, especially for iron and zinc which are crucial nutrients for infants. The processing method is a practical approach aimed at combating the problem of malnutrition among infants and young children in Kenya and other developing countries. The product developed in this study would also be appropriate for use in geriatrics care and also in immuno-compromised individuals. The technique in this study can be easily adopted at both household and village levels to produce high protein-energy weaning food to help enhance the nutritional status of Kenyans.

Ethnobotanical information and traditional medicines were investigated and documented in Embu and Mbeere districts, Eastern Province of Kenya. Oral interviews were obtained from over 100 herbalists, both men and women aged between 40 and 80 years. All the herbalists interviewed were Christians and had little formal education. Non-Christian herbalists were purported to combine herbal medicines with witchcraft and were not interviewed. Of the 40 commonly used herbal plants 25 were used as multi-purpose medicinal plants (mpmp), while 15 were used to treat one disease type. There was a correlation between the outpatient morbidity data at the local District hospital, and the common incident diseases treated by the herbalists. Generally a decoction or infusion of the herb was recommended for the treatment of internal or external condition of the patients. Malaria and typhoid were treatable with a total of 15 and 12 plants respectively and were among the first two commonest diseases found in the study area. Terminalia brownii was found to be the most used medicinal plant either alone or in combination with other herbs. The second and third most utilized medicinal plants were Ovariodendron anisatum and Wurbugia ugadensis respectively. Keywords: Herbalists; Herbal medicine; Terminalia; Decoction The African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines Vol. 4 (1) 2007: pp. 75-86

A high performance liquid chromatography method has been developed to determine riboflavin content in goat and cow whole milk. The present method involves acidification of the milk to precipitate bulk of the proteins and centrifugation affording a supernatant, which was diluted with 2% acetic acid to a constant volume. This solution was subjected to HPLC analysis using an ODS column. The method is simple, rapid and sensitive for riboflavin determination. The results obtained by the method compared well with the results of analysis by the \"Official Methods of Analysis\" of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). Several analytical methods for the determination of riboflavin have been reported (Kamman, 1980). Most of the procedures involve a pretreatment to liberate the protein bound vitamin from flavoproteins. Fluorometric methods of detection are considered the most desirable because of their sensitivity, rapidity, and specificity. However, they require extra treatments to separate riboflavin from interfering fluorescent compounds. In the official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1996, method 970.65), samples are treated with potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to remove background fluorescence. Rashid and Potts (1980) treated milk samples with acidified lead acetate solution to separate extraneous protein and minimize background fluorescence. Fellman et al. (1982) have reported a C18 reversed phase separation for the simultaneous determination of thiamin and riboflavin in selected foods including milk. This method required the removal of interfering substances using a 0.01M phosphate buffer. Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology Vol.3(2) 2001: 96-101

Salt samples from some of the Kenyan, Malawian and Zambian markets were analysed for potassium iodate content by titrimetric method. The levels of potassium iodate for Kenyan salt samples ranged from 21.3±1.0 mg/kg to 142.8±2.8 mg/kg and were all below the minimum legal requirement of 168.5 mg/kg. This is in contrast to the declarations on the packets, which indicated that the salt was fortified with sufficient amount of potassium iodate as required by the law. There were variations also in iodine content in salt of the same brand sold in different parts of the country. Malindi at a low altitude and with a higher humidity than Thika had salts with lower iodate contents than Thika. On the other hand, 50 % of Malawian samples had levels within the recommended range of 80-100 mg/kg. Salt obtained from the supermarkets registered the highest concentrations (mean of 101.6 mg/kg) while that sold in the open markets by vendors contained an average of 68.1 mg/kg and the lowest levels (17.6 mg/kg) were obtained in salt supplied by small-scale salt producers. In Zambia, the imported salts sold in the open air-markets were below the minimum legal requirements (80-100 mg/kg) with a potassium iodate content range of 36 - 44 mg/kg. This suggests that there is a loss of potassium iodate due to environmental factors at retail level or the retailers were adulterating the iodised salt. All the locally produced salts analysed indicated a very high level of iodate content with a concentration range of 226-246 mg/kg which may suggest lack of proper quality control during the iodination process. The results showed differences between well-packed salt from supermarkets, unpacked salt sold by vendors and the salt that is traditionally produced by small-scale miners. This study reveals some weaknesses in the salt iodination programmes in these countries and recommends strict and periodic monitoring of the quality of the salts. Key Words: iodate, salt, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia. TENEURS EN IODE DANS LE SEL COMESTIBLE VENDU AU MALAWI, AU KENYA ET EN ZAMBIE RESUME Des échantillons de sel pris de quelques marchés du Kenya, du Malawi et de Zambie ont été analysés pour déterminer la teneur en iodate de potassium par la méthode titrimétrique. Les teneurs en iodate de potassium dans les échantillons du sel kenyan variaient entre 21,3±1,0 mg/kg et 142,8±2,8 mg/kg et se trouvaient toutes au-dessous des conditions juridiques minimum de 168,5 mg/kg. Ceci est en contraste par rapport aux déclarations qui figuraient sur les paquets, qui indiquaient que le sel était fortifié avec la quantité suffisante d'iodate de potassium exigée par la loi. Il y avait également des variations dans la teneur en iode dans le sel de même marque vendu dans les différentes régions du pays. Malindi qui est à une basse altitude et qui a une plus grande humidité que Thika avait des sels contenant moins d'iodate que Thika. Par ailleurs, 50 % des échantillons du Malawi avaient des niveaux qui se situaient dans la gamme recommandée de 80-100 mg/kg. Le sel obtenu des supermarchés a enregistré les plus hautes concentrations (une moyenne de 101,6 mg/kg) tandis que le sel vendu par des marchands dans les marchés à ciel ouvert avaient une moyenne de 68,1 mg/kg et les niveaux les plus bas (17,6 mg/kg) ont été obtenus dans le sel fourni par des producteurs de sel de petite envergure. En Zambie, le sels importés vendus dans les marchés à ciel ouvert étaient au-dessous des conditions juridiques minimum (80-100 mg/kg) avec une teneur en iodate de potassium variant entre 36 et 44 mg/kg. Ceci suggère qu'il y a une perte d'iodate de potassium suite à des facteurs liés à l'environnement au niveau de la vente en détail, ou alors les détaillants ont falsifié le sel iodé. Tous les sels produits localement qui ont été analysés ont indiqué une très grande teneur en iodate avec une gamme de concentration de 226-246 mg/kg qui peut suggérer un manque de contrôle de qualité adéquat au cours du processus d'iodation. Les résultats ont montré des différences entre le sel bien emballé vendu dans les supermarchés, le sel non emballé vendu par des marchands et le sel qui est traditionnellement produit par des mineurs de petite envergure. Cette étude révèle quelques faiblesses dans les programmes d'iodation du sel dans ces pays et elle recommande un suivi strict périodique de la qualité des sels. Mots-clés: iodate, sel, Kenya, Malawi, Zambie. AJFAND Vol.3(2) 2003