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The permeability of magma in volcanic conduits controls the fluid flow and pore pressure development that regulates gas emissions and the style of volcanic eruptions. The architecture of the permeable porous structure is subject to changes as magma deforms and outgasses during ascent. Here, we present a high-resolution study of the permeability distribution across two conduit shear zones (marginal and central) developed in the dacitic spine that extruded towards the closing stages of the 1991-1995 eruption at Unzen volcano, Japan. The marginal shear zone is approximately 3.2 m wide and exhibits a 2 m wide, moderate shear zone with porosity and permeability similar to the conduit core, transitioning into a ∼ 1 m wide, highly sheared region with relatively low porosity and permeability, as well as an outer 20 cm wide cataclastic fault zone. The low-porosity, highly sheared rock further exhibits an anisotropic permeability network, with slightly higher permeability along the shear plane (parallel to the conduit margin), and is locally overprinted by oblique dilational Riedel fractures. The central shear zone is defined by a 3 m long by ∼ 9 cm wide fracture ending bluntly and bordered by a 15-40 cm wide damage zone with permeability enhanced by ∼ 3 orders of magnitude; directional permeability and resultant anisotropy could not be measured from this exposure. We interpret the permeability and porosity of the marginal shear zone to reflect the evolution of compactional (i.e. ductile) shear during ascent up to the point of rupture, which was estimated by Umakoshi et al. (2008) at ∼ 500 m depth. At this point the compactional shear zone would have been locally overprinted by brittle rupture, promoting the development of a shear fault and dilational Riedel fractures during repeating phases of increased magma ascent rate, enhancing anisotropic permeability that channels fluid flow into and along the conduit margin. In contrast, we interpret the central shear zone as a shallo

Volcanic ash and pyroclasts can weld when deposited hot by pyroclastic density currents, in near-vent fall deposits, or in fractures in volcano interiors. Welding progressively decreases the permeability of the particle packs, influencing a range of magmatic and volcanic processes, including magma outgassing, which is an important control on eruption dynamics. Consequently, there is a need for a quantitative model for permeability evolution during welding of ash and pyroclasts under the range of conditions encountered in nature. Here we present in situ experiments in which hydrous, crystal-free, glassy pyroclasts are imaged via x-ray tomography during welding at high temperature. For each 3D dataset acquired, we determine the porosity, Darcian gas permeability, specific surface area, and pore connectivity. We find that all of these quantities decrease as a critical percolation threshold is approached. We develop a constitutive mathematical model for the evolution of permeability in welding volcanic systems based on percolation theory, and validate the model against our experimental data. Importantly, our model accounts for polydispersivity of the grainsize in the particle pack, the pressures acting on the pack, and changes in particle viscosity arising from degassing of dissolved H2O during welding. Our model is theoretically grounded and has no fitting parameters, hence it should be valid across all magma compositions. The model can be used to predict whether a cooling pyroclast pack will have sufficient time to weld and to degas, the scenarios under which a final deposit will retain a permeable network, the timescales over which sealing occurs, and whether a welded deposit will have disequilibrium or equilibrium H2O content. A user-friendly implementation of the model is provided.

Geothermal fields are prone to temperature fluctuations from natural hydrothermal activity, anthropogenic drilling practices, and magmatic intrusions. These fluctuations may elicit a response from the rocks in terms of their mineralogical, physical (i.e., porosity and permeability), and mechanical properties. Hyaloclastites are a highly variable volcaniclastic rock predominantly formed of glass clasts that are produced during nonexplosive quench-induced fragmentation, in both subaqueous and subglacial eruptive environments. They are common in high-latitude geothermal fields as both weak, highly permeable reservoir rocks and compacted impermeable cap rocks. Basaltic glass is altered through interactions with external water into a clay-dominated matrix, termed palagonite, which acts to cement the bulk rock. The abundant, hydrous phyllosilicate minerals within the palagonite can dehydrate at elevated temperatures, potentially resulting in thermal liability of the bulk rock. Using surficial samples collected from Krafla, northeast Iceland, and a range of petrographic, mineralogical, and mechanical analyses, we find that smectite dehydration occurs at temperatures commonly experienced within geothermal fields. Dehydration events at 130, 185, and 600°C result in progressive mass loss and contraction. This evolution results in a positive correlation between treatment temperature, porosity gain, and permeability increase. Gas permeability measured at 1 MPa confining pressure shows a 3-fold increase following thermal treatment at 600°C. Furthermore, strength measurements show that brittle failure is dependent on porosity and therefore the degree of thermal treatment. Following thermal treatment at 600°C, the indirect tensile strength, uniaxial compressive strength, and triaxial compressive strength (at 5 MPa confining pressure) decrease by up to 68% (1.1 MPa), 63% (7.3 MPa), and 25% (7.9 MPa), respectively. These results are compared with hyaloclastite taken from several dep

Many of the grand challenges in volcanic and magmatic research are focused on understanding the dynamics of highly heterogeneous systems and the critical conditions that enable magmas to move or eruptions to initiate. From the formation and development of magma reservoirs, through propagation and arrest of magma, to the conditions in the conduit, gas escape, eruption dynamics, and beyond into the environmental impacts of that eruption, we are trying to define how processes occur, their rates and timings, and their causes and consequences. However, we are usually unable to observe the processes directly. Here we give a short synopsis of the new capabilities and highlight the potential insights that in situ observation can provide. We present the XRheo and Pele furnace experimental apparatus and analytical toolkit for the in situ X-ray tomography-based quantification of magmatic microstructural evolution during rheological testing. We present the first 3D data showing the evolving textural heterogeneity within a shearing magma, highlighting the dynamic changes to microstructure that occur from the initiation of shear, and the variability of the microstructural response to that shear as deformation progresses. The particular shear experiments highlighted here focus on the effect of shear on bubble coalescence with a view to shedding light on both magma transport and fragmentation processes. The XRheo system is intended to help us understand the microstructural controls on the complex and non-Newtonian evolution of magma rheology, and is therefore used to elucidate the many mobilization, transport, and eruption phenomena controlled by the rheological evolution of a multi-phase magmatic flows. The detailed, in situ characterization of sample textures presented here therefore represents the opening of a new field for the accurate parameterization of dynamic microstructural control on rheological behavior.

Geothermal fields are prone to temperature fluctuations from natural hydrothermal activity, anthropogenic drilling practices, and magmatic intrusions. These fluctuations may elicit a response from the rocks in terms of their mineralogical, physical (i.e., porosity and permeability), and mechanical properties. Hyaloclastites are a highly variable volcaniclastic rock predominantly formed of glass clasts that are produced during nonexplosive quench-induced fragmentation, in both subaqueous and subglacial eruptive environments. They are common in high-latitude geothermal fields as both weak, highly permeable reservoir rocks and compacted impermeable cap rocks. Basaltic glass is altered through interactions with external water into a clay-dominated matrix, termed palagonite, which acts to cement the bulk rock. The abundant, hydrous phyllosilicate minerals within the palagonite can dehydrate at elevated temperatures, potentially resulting in thermal liability of the bulk rock. Using surficial samples collected from Krafla, northeast Iceland, and a range of petrographic, mineralogical, and mechanical analyses, we find that smectite dehydration occurs at temperatures commonly experienced within geothermal fields. Dehydration events at 130, 185, and 600°C result in progressive mass loss and contraction. This evolution results in a positive correlation between treatment temperature, porosity gain, and permeability increase. Gas permeability measured at 1 MPa confining pressure shows a 3-fold increase following thermal treatment at 600°C. Furthermore, strength measurements show that brittle failure is dependent on porosity and therefore the degree of thermal treatment. Following thermal treatment at 600°C, the indirect tensile strength, uniaxial compressive strength, and triaxial compressive strength (at 5 MPa confining pressure) decrease by up to 68% (1.1 MPa), 63% (7.3 MPa), and 25% (7.9 MPa), respectively. These results are compared with hyaloclastite taken from several dep