Search

Multi-injection pharmaceutical products such as insulin must be formulated to prevent aggregation and microbial contamination. Small-molecule preservatives and nonionic surfactants such as poloxamer 188 (P188) are thus often employed in protein drug formulations. However, mixtures of preservatives and surfactants can induce aggregation and even phase separation over time, despite the fact that all components are well dissolvable when used alone in aqueous solution. A systematic study is conducted here to understand the phase behavior and morphological causes of aggregation of P188 in the presence of the preservatives phenol and benzyl alcohol, primarily using small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS). Based on SAXS results, P188 remains as unimers in solution when below a certain phenol concentration. Upon increasing the phenol concentration, a regime of micelle formation is observed due to the interaction between P188 and phenol. Further increasing the phenol concentration causes mixtures to become turbid and phase-separate over time. The effect of benzyl alcohol on the phase behavior is also investigated.

Polysorbate 80 (PS80), a nonionic surfactant used in pharmaceutical formulation, is known to be incompatible with

Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) studies of a model pharmaceutical formulation reveal how formulation stability depends on the compatibility of individual components. Solutions of two common protein formulation excipients, polysorbate 80 (PS80), a nonionic surfactant that prevents aggregation, and m-cresol, an antimicrobial agent for multi-dose injectable formulations, are investigated. The addition of m-cresol to PS80 solutions leads to solution turbidity and irreversibly alters PS80 micelle morphology. This slow preservative-induced destabilization of PS80 micelles progresses over days or even weeks, which highlights the essential role that aggregation kinetics plays in preservative-surfactant interactions. The temperature-dependence of PS80 micelle growth kinetics is quantified by SANS in the presence of m-cresol. Aggregation is a two-step process, where initial formation of small aggregates is followed by a period of monotonic power-law growth, providing evidence for the mechanism. Total aggregate mass stays constant after initial aggregate formation, and addition of a pH-regulating citrate buffer dramatically accelerates aggregation kinetics.

Nanosecond relaxation processes in sugar matrices are causally linked through diffusional processes to protein stability in lyophilized formulations. Long-term protein degradation rates track mean-squared displacement (⟨u(2)⟩) of hydrogen atoms in sugar glasses, a parameter describing dynamics on a time scale of picoseconds to nanoseconds. However, measurements of ⟨u(2)⟩ are usually performed by neutron scattering, which is not conducive to rapid formulation screening in early development. Here, we present a benchtop technique to derive a ⟨u(2)⟩ surrogate based on the fluorescence red edge effect. Glycerol, lyophilized trehalose, and lyophilized sucrose were used as model systems. Samples containing 10(-6) mole fraction of rhodamine 6G, a fluorophore, were excited at either 532 nm (main peak) or 566 nm (red edge), and the ⟨u(2)⟩ surrogate was determined based the corresponding Stokes shifts. Results showed reasonable agreement between ⟨u(2)⟩ from neutron scattering and the surrogate from fluorescence, although deviations were observed at very low temperatures. We discuss the sources of the deviations and suggest technique improvements to ameliorate these. We expect that this method will be a valuable tool to evaluate lyophilized sugar matrices with respect to their ability to protect proteins from diffusion-limited degradation processes during long-term storage. Additionally, the method may have broader applications in amorphous pharmaceutical solids.

Amorphization of crystalline compounds using mesoporous media is a promising technique to improve the solubility and drug release of poorly-soluble compounds. The objective of this paper is to understand the effect of moisture on the capacity and performance of vapor-phase mediated amorphization.Mesoporous silicon dioxide (SiO(2)) and crystalline naphthalene were used as the model system. The effect of moisture on the amorphization capacity of naphthalene was determined using adsorption chambers with various levels of relative humidity. Enthalpy and capacity of water vapor adsorption on SiO(2) were measured using isothermal microcalorimetry and thermogravimetry.Moisture not only suppressed the amorphization capacity of naphthalene, but reversed an already-amorphized formulation as well. On the other hand, through the same competitive interaction, improved drug release and enhanced solubility were obtained. The initial supersaturation was followed by an entropy-driven crystallization. In addition, moisture-induced siloxane bond fracture was found at normal processing conditions, which led to the changes in silica surface chemistry. However, the implication in amorphization has not reached a definitive conclusion.Humidity during processing and storage must be carefully controlled for this type of amorphous formulation. Further investigation is needed to better understand the moisture-induced changes of silica.

Amorphization of crystalline compounds using mesoporous media is a promising technique to improve the solubility and dissolution rate of poorly soluble compounds. The objective of this paper is to determine the capacity of amorphization and understand the mechanisms of phase transformation. Commercial grades of mesoporous silicon dioxide (SiO(2)) samples (5- to 30-nm mean pore diameters) with either constant surface area or constant pore volume were used. The amorphization capacity of naphthalene was not proportional to either the surface area or the pore volume measured using adsorption chambers. Instead, the amorphization capacity correlated with surface curvature, that is, the smaller the pore diameter and the higher the surface curvature, the greater the amorphization capacity. The change in surface chemistry due to a highly curved surface may be responsible for the enhanced amorphization capacity as well. The amorphization of crystalline compounds was facilitated through capillary condensation, with the decrease in pore volume as the direct experimental evidence. The amorphization capacity was also enhanced by the dipole-dipole or dipole-induced dipole interaction, promoted by the hydroxyl groups on the surface of SiO(2). The enthalpy of vapor-solid condensation of crystalline compounds was a useful indicator to predict the rank order of amorphization capacity.

A novel dual-shaft configuration in isothermal microcalorimetry was developed to study the interaction of water vapor with pharmaceutical excipients. An instrument performance test is suggested to validate the experimental data. Reliable experimental results can be collected using a single perfusion shaft; however, there was limitation of the dual-shaft configuration, which resulted deviation in the experimental results. A periodic performance test is recommended. Silicified microcrystalline cellulose (SMCC) was used as a model system to study the interaction using the dual-shaft method. Enthalpy of water vapor adsorption on SMCC was determined and compared to literature data. The data collected using the dual-shaft configuration did not reflect the actual physical system. The deviation was most likely due to the lack of flow control caused by viscous resistance. The enthalpy of adsorption was then calculated using isothermal microcalorimetry coupled with a dynamic vapor sorption apparatus. The results, -55 kJ/mol at low relative humidity (RH) to -22 kJ/mol at high RH, were consistent with the physical phenomenon of water vapor adsorption. Enthalpy of adsorption showed surface heterogeneity of SMCC and suggested multilayer condensation of water at approximately 60% RH. However, at high RH, the results showed the moisture-excipient interaction can be more complex than the proposed mechanism.

This study investigates the effect of low levels of electrolytes on storage stability in freeze-dried sucrose-based protein formulations. Both bovine serum albumin and recombinant human serum albumin were freeze dried with sucrose and alkali halides (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl, and CsCl) at selected low levels. All formulations were stored at 50 °C and 65 °C up to 2 months and then assayed for protein aggregation. The data demonstrate that low levels of LiCl and NaCl enhance stability. No obvious correlations with either protein secondary structure or global dynamics (structural relaxation time) were found. However, good correlations were found between stability and both free-volume hole size via positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) and fast dynamics by neutron scattering. Volume changes on mixing and the partial molal volume of salt were also studied in an effort to detect decreases in free volume. These data did not support the hypothesis that reduction in free volume was the primary mechanism for salt-induced stabilization. Finally, a positive effect of postlyophilization annealing on stability was demonstrated. In summary, we find that small amounts of LiCl and NaCl significantly stabilize these proteins, which is a result at variance with conventional formulation wisdom.

Immunogenicity of aggregated or otherwise degraded protein delivered from depots or other biopharmaceutical products is an increasing concern, and the ability to deliver stable, active protein is of central importance. We review characterization approaches for solid protein dosage forms with respect to metrics that are intended to be predictive of protein stability against aggregation and other degradation processes. Each of these approaches is ultimately motivated by hypothetical connections between protein stability and the material property being measured. We critically evaluate correlations between these properties and stability outcomes, and use these evaluations to revise the currently standing hypotheses. Based on this we provide simple physical principles that are necessary (and possibly sufficient) for generating solid delivery vehicles with stable protein loads. Essentially, proteins should be strongly coupled (typically through H-bonds) to the bulk regions of a phase-homogeneous matrix with suppressed β relaxation. We also provide a framework for reliable characterization of solid protein forms with respect to stability.

Amorphous formulations of ibuprofen were prepared by confining the drug molecules into the porous scaffolds. The molecular interactions between ibuprofen and porous media were investigated using neutron vibrational spectroscopy. Ibuprofen was introduced into the pores using sublimation and adsorption method. Neutron vibrational spectra of both neat and confined ibuprofen were measured, and compared to the simulated ibuprofen spectra using first-principles phonon calculations. The neutron vibrational spectra showed marked difference between the neat crystalline and the confined ibuprofen in low-frequency region, indicating a loss of the overall structural order once the ibuprofen molecules were in the pores. Furthermore, the formation of ibuprofen dimers, which is found in the crystal structure, was greatly inhibited, possibly due to the preferential interactions between the carboxylic acid group of ibuprofen (−COOH) and the surface hydroxyl groups of porous scaffolds (Si–OH). The experimental evidence suggests that, at the current drug loading, most, if not all, of the confined ibuprofen molecules were bound to the pore surfaces via hydrogen bonding. The structural arrangement of ibuprofen in the pores appears to be monolayer coverage. In addition, neutron vibrational spectroscopy is proven an exceedingly useful technique to study adsorbent-adsorbate interactions.

Aqueous solubility of an active pharmaceutical ingredient is an important consideration to ensure successful drug development. Mesoporous materials have been investigated as an amorphous drug delivery system owing to their nanosized capillaries and large surface areas. The complex interactions of crystalline compounds with mesoporous media and their implication in drug delivery are not well understood. Molecules interacting with porous media behave very differently than those in bulk phase. Their altered dynamics and thermodynamics play an important role in the properties and product performance of the amorphous system. In this review, application of mesoporous silicon dioxide and silicates in drug amorphization is the main focus. First, as background, the nature of gas-porous media interactions is summarized. The synthesis of various types of mesoporous silica, which are used by many investigators in this field, is described. Second, the behavior of molecules confined in mesopores is compared with those in bulk, crystalline phase. The molecular dynamics of compounds due to confinement, analyzed using various techniques, and their consequences in drug delivery are discussed. Finally, the preparation and performance of drug delivery systems using mesoporous silica are examined.

Spontaneous crystalline-to-amorphous phase transformation of organic or medicinal molecules in the presence of mesoporous materials has been observed, for which pathway was suggested to be via the vapor phase, that is, sublimation of the crystalline molecules followed by adsorption on the porous media. The objective of this paper is to rigorously evaluate this amorphization pathway and to study the thermodynamics of spontaneous amorphization. Mesoporous silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) was used as a model system. Physical mixtures of SiO 2 and crystalline compounds were prepared and stored at 0% relative humidity (RH) and 40°C. Loss of crystallinity of the model compounds was confirmed using powder X-ray diffraction and polarized light microscopy. Adsorption chamber was set up, in which naphthalene and SiO 2 were stored, without physical contact, under reduced pressure at 0% RH and 40°C. Data confirmed that the rate and extent of sublimation and adsorption of naphthalene were significant for amorphization to occur on a pharmaceutically relevant timescale. Furthermore, a thermodynamic model has been developed to explain spontaneous amorphization. This unique phase transformation phenomenon can be a simple and effective method to improve the aqueous solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drug molecules.