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Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is an infectious, tick-borne disease caused by the hemoprotozoan parasites, Theileria equi, Babesia caballi, and a recently reported new species, T. haneyi. Infections by these apicomplexan parasites limit performance and cause economic losses for the horse industry. Equine piroplasmosis is widespread in the northern regions of Nigeria, where an increasing portion of the animal population is composed of horses. This disease has remained epidemiologically challenging, especially as the movement of horses increases across Nigeria. In this study, blood samples from 300 horses were collected in three states of northwestern Nigeria. The presence of piroplasms was screened by nested PCR targeting 18S rDNA and positive samples were analyzed using species-specific-nested PCR-targeting genes including ema1 (T. equi), rap1 (B. caballi), and a gene coding a protein of unknown function (T. haneyi). Species-specific-nPCR results demonstrated that the prevalence of T. equi was 13.0% (39/300), B. caballi was 3.3% (10/300) and T. haneyi was 2.7% (8/300). Mixed infections with T. equi and B. caballi was 2.7% (8/300) while T. equi, B. caballi, and T. haneyi multiple infection prevalence was 0.6% (2/300). We used 18S rDNA sequences to determine close relationships between T. equi by phylogenetic analysis and demonstrated that among 57 sequences of Theileria parasites, 28 samples belonged to clade A (49%), 13 samples were found to be clade C (22%), and 16 were clade D (28%). These results demonstrate the genetic diversity of T. equi circulating in horses from Nigeria.

Equine theileriosis, a tick-transmitted disease caused by the hemoprotozoan parasites Theileria equi and Theileria haneyi, affects equids throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is a significant regulatory concern in non-endemic countries, where testing for equine theileriosis is required prior to horse import to prevent parasite entry. Within endemic areas, infection causes significant morbidity and mortality, leading to economic losses. No vaccine for equine theileriosis is available, and current drug treatment protocols are inconsistent and associated with significant side effects. Recent work has revealed substantial genetic variability among equine theileriosis organisms, and analysis of ribosomal DNA from affected animals around the world indicates that the organisms can be grouped into five distinct clades. As these diverse parasites are capable of infecting a wide range of both tick and mammalian hosts, movement of different equine Theileria species between endemic countries, and eventually into non-endemic countries, is a significant concern. Furthermore, the substantial genetic variability of these organisms will likely render currently utilized importation diagnostic tests unable to detect all equine Theileria spp. To this end, more complete characterization of these diverse parasites is critical to the continued global control of equine theileriosis. This review discusses current knowledge of equine Theileria spp. in this context, and highlights new opportunities and challenges for workers in this field.

The global importance of the hemoparasite

The apicomplexan parasite Theileria haneyi is one of two known causative agents of equine theileriosis. It causes milder clinical disease than its more virulent counterpart, Theileria equi, in experimentally infected horses, and can superinfect T. equi-positive horses. The current equi merozoite antigen 1 (EMA1)-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)used in the U.S. to detect equine theileriosis detects T. equi but not T. haneyi, and the complexity of molecular assays precludes widespread use for epidemiologic studies. In order to facilitate urgently needed studies on the prevalence of T. haneyi, the goal of this study was to develop a sensitive and specific serologic assay for the diagnosis of T. haneyi based on the equi merozoite antigen 11 (ThEMA11). To achieve this objective, ThEMA11 was recombinantly expressed in eukaryotic cells and its antigenicity assessed using sera from T. haneyi-experimentally infected horses. Confirmation of sera reactivity enabled design and optimization of an indirect ELISA. Specificity of the ELISA for T. haneyi was assessed using a cohort of sera from horses experimentally infected and confirmed PCR-positive for either T. equi or T. haneyi. Data from field samples further demonstrate that the ThEMA11 ELISA is capable of identifying T. haneyi antibodies in horses from multiple continents around the world.

The apicomplexan parasite Theileria haneyi is one of two known causative agents of equine theileriosis. It causes milder clinical disease than its more virulent counterpart, Theileria equi, in experimentally infected horses, and can superinfect T. equi-positive horses. The current equi merozoite antigen 1 (EMA1)-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)used in the U.S. to detect equine theileriosis detects T. equi but not T. haneyi, and the complexity of molecular assays precludes widespread use for epidemiologic studies. In order to facilitate urgently needed studies on the prevalence of T. haneyi, the goal of this study was to develop a sensitive and specific serologic assay for the diagnosis of T. haneyi based on the equi merozoite antigen 11 (ThEMA11). To achieve this objective, ThEMA11 was recombinantly expressed in eukaryotic cells and its antigenicity assessed using sera from T. haneyi-experimentally infected horses. Confirmation of sera reactivity enabled design and optimization of an indirect ELISA. Specificity of the ELISA for T. haneyi was assessed using a cohort of sera from horses experimentally infected and confirmed PCR-positive for either T. equi or T. haneyi. Data from field samples further demonstrate that the ThEMA11 ELISA is capable of identifying T. haneyi antibodies in horses from multiple continents around the world.

Theileria parva is the causative agent of East Coast fever (ECF), a tick-borne disease that kills over a million cattle each year in sub-Saharan Africa. Immune protection against T. parva involves a CD8+ cytotoxic T cell response to parasite-infected cells. However, there is currently a paucity of knowledge regarding the role played by innate immune cells in ECF pathogenesis and T. parva control., Theileria parva is the causative agent of East Coast fever (ECF), a tick-borne disease that kills over a million cattle each year in sub-Saharan Africa. Immune protection against T. parva involves a CD8+ cytotoxic T cell response to parasite-infected cells. However, there is currently a paucity of knowledge regarding the role played by innate immune cells in ECF pathogenesis and T. parva control. Here, we demonstrate an increase in intermediate monocytes (CD14++ CD16+) with a concomitant decrease in the classical (CD14++ CD16−) and nonclassical (CD14+ CD16+) subsets at 12 days postinfection (dpi) during lethal infection but not during nonlethal T. parva infection. Ex vivo analyses of monocytes demonstrated upregulation of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA and increased nitric oxide production during T. parva lethal infection compared to nonlethal infection at 10 dpi. Interestingly, no significant differences in peripheral blood parasite loads were observed between lethally and nonlethally infected animals at 12 dpi. In vitro stimulation with T. parva schizont-infected cells or Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) resulted in significant upregulation of IL-1β production by monocytes from lethally infected cattle compared to those from nonlethally infected animals. Strikingly, monocytes from lethally infected animals produced significant amounts of IL-10 mRNA after stimulation with T. parva schizont-infected cells. In conclusion, we demonstrate that T. parva infection leads to alterations in the molecular and functional phenotypes of bovine monocytes. Importantly, since these changes primarily occur in lethal infection, they can serve as biomarkers for ECF progression and severity, thereby aiding in the standardization of protection assessment for T. parva candidate vaccines.

A novel apicomplexan parasite was serendipitously discovered in horses at the United States – Mexico border. Phylogenetic analysis based on 18S rDNA showed the erythrocyte-infective parasite to be related to, but distinct from, Theileria spp. in Africa, the most similar taxa being Theileria spp. from waterbuck and mountain zebra. The degree of sequence variability observed at the 18S rDNA locus also suggests the likely existence of additional cryptic species. Among described species, the genome of this novel equid Theileria parasite is most similar to that of Theileria equi, also a pathogen of horses. The estimated divergence time between the new Theileria sp. and T. equi, based on genomic sequence data, is greater than 33 million years. Average protein sequence divergence between them, at 23%, is greater than that of Theileria parva and Theileria annulata proteins, which is 18%. The latter two represent highly virulent Theileria spp. of domestic cattle, as well as of African and Asian wild buffalo, respectively, which differ markedly in pathology, host cell tropism, tick vector and geographical distribution. The extent of genome-wide sequence divergence, as well as significant morphological differences, relative to T. equi justify the classification of Theileria sp. as a new taxon. Despite the overall genomic divergence, the nine member equi merozoite antigen (EMA) superfamily, previously found as a multigene family only in T. equi, is also present in the novel parasite. Practically, significant sequence divergence in antigenic loci resulted in this undescribed Theileria sp. not being detectable using currently available diagnostic tests. Discovery of this novel species infective to equids highlights exceptional diversity within the genus Theileria, a finding with serious implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance.

Theileria equi infection, exotic to the United States has reemerged through intravenous (iatrogenic) and tick-borne transmission. Surveillance at the US-Mexico border identified a new species, Theileria haneyi, (T. haneyiEP) (EP = Eagle Pass, Texas) which warranted additional investigation due to inability to detect by PCR targeting of T. equi ema-1 and EMA-1-cELISA validated for T. equi. Infection dynamics of T. haneyiEP were evaluated, including ability to superinfect in the presence of T. equi-Texas (T. equiTX), the isolate responsible for the reemergence of T. equi in the U S. Experimental infection with T. equiTX or T. haneyiEP revealed minimal clinical disease however, T. equiTX infection led to significantly greater neutropenia. Comparison of time to antibody detection following inoculation revealed significantly greater time to detectable anti-T. haneyiEP antibody (26.67 days post-inoculation (DPI)) than T. equiTX (11.67 DPI). Regardless of initial infection with either T. equiTX or T. haneyiEP, superinfection was established. Comparative analysis of antibody responses from a splenectomized horse infected with T. haneyiEP to that of a spleen intact horse infected with T. equiFL revealed a different antibody binding profile to T. haneyiEP, T. equiTX and T. equiFL merozoite antigen and limited shared antigen/cross-reactive antibody(s). Affinity purified T. equi EMA-1 and EMA-2 from T. equiFL were shown as targets for horse antibodies against T. haneyi. Data presented here show (1) T. haneyiEP can superinfect in the presence of T. equiTX infection and co-persists for minimally 25 months, (2) intravenous challenge with T. haneyi is subclinical, and (3) limited cross-reactive antibody between T. haneyiEP and T. equi includes reactivity to EMA-1 and EMA-2.

Control of Theileria equi, the primary cause of equine theileriosis, is largely reliant on acaracide use and chemosterilization with imidocarb dipropionate (ID). However, it is currently unknown if ID is effective against Theileria haneyi, the recently identified second causative agent of equine theileriosis, or if the drug maintains effectiveness against T. equi in the presence of T. haneyi co-infection. The purpose of this study was to address these questions using ID treatment of the following three groups of horses: (1) five T. haneyi infected horses, (2) three T. haneyi-T. equi infected horses, and (3) three T. equi-T. haneyi infected horses. Clearance was first evaluated using nPCR for each Theileria sp. on peripheral blood samples. ID failed to clear T. haneyi in all three groups of horses, and failed to clear T. equi in two of three horses in group two. For definitive confirmation of infection status, horses in groups two and three underwent splenectomy post-treatment. The T. equi-nPCR-positive horses in group two developed severe clinical signs and were euthanized. Remaining horses exhibited moderate signs consistent with T. haneyi. Our results demonstrate that ID therapy lacks efficacy against T. haneyi, and T. haneyi-T. equi co-infection may interfere with ID clearance of T. equi.

This case report describes a 10-year-old horse that developed multiple dermal papules over the right masseter area following removal of a tick from the same site 3 months earlier. Histological examination of a biopsy from a papule was suggestive of either a T-cell-rich B-cell lymphoma or cutaneous lymphoid hyperplasia, a form of pseudolymphoma sometimes associated with a tick bite. Positive serological testing and PCR of the biopsy sample for Borrelia in conjunction with immunohistochemical testing of the skin biopsy, the clinical history and response to treatment with doxycycline strongly supported the diagnosis of Borrelia-associated cutaneous pseudolymphoma.

This case report describes a 10-year-old horse that developed multiple dermal papules over the right masseter area following removal of a tick from the same site 3 months earlier. Histological examination of a biopsy from a papule was suggestive of either a T-cell-rich B-cell lymphoma or cutaneous lymphoid hyperplasia, a form of pseudolymphoma sometimes associated with a tick bite. Positive serological testing and PCR of the biopsy sample for Borrelia in conjunction with immunohistochemical testing of the skin biopsy, the clinical history and response to treatment with doxycycline strongly supported the diagnosis of Borrelia-associated cutaneous pseudolymphoma.