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Carryover of medicated feed additives between batches of feed can potentially result in harmful drug residues in the edible tissues of food-animals. Flushing the equipment with an ingredient, such as ground grain, is one method used to remove any residual medicated feed from the system. It is generally recommended that the quantity of flush used be between 50 and 100 g/kg of the mixer’s capacity. However, there is little data that supports this recommendation. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to determine the minimum quantity of flush material required to prevent drug carryover; and to quantify the interrelationship between flush size and drug concentration. The feed medicated with nicarbazin (Nicarb 250 g/kg®; 00.125 g/kg) was manufactured and conveyed from the mixer, through a drag conveyor and bucket elevator, and placed into a finished product bin. The system was then flushed using ground corn in the amount of 25, 50, 100, 150, or 200 g/kg of the mixer’s capacity (454.5 kg). Subsequently, a non-medicated diet was conveyed through the system and samples were collected and analyzed for nicarbazin. No differences were detected among the flush treatments, and all treatments were effective in reducing nicarbazin carryover to less than 2.2 mg/kg to the non-medicated diet. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that existing flushing guidelines meet or exceed what is required to prevent carryover of medicated feed additives.

A total of 200 finishing pigs (PIC TR4 × 1050; initially 46.8 ± 1.24 kg) were used in a 69-day growth assay to determine the effects of sorghum particle size on growth performance and carcass characteristics. Pigs were sorted by sex, ancestry, and BW with 5 pigs per pen and 10 pens per treatment. Treatments were a corn–soybean meal-based control with the corn milled to a target particle size of 600 μm and sorghum milled to target particle sizes of 800, 600, and 400 μm. Actual mean particle sizes were 555 μm for corn and 724, 573, and 319 μm for sorghum. All diets were pelleted. Pigs were slaughtered (average final BW of 123 kg) at a commercial abattoir. Pigs fed the sorghum-based treatments were not different in growth performance, hot carcass weight, backfat thickness, loin depth, or fat free lean index compared to those fed the corn control; however, there was a tendency for pigs fed sorghum-based treatments to have increased (P 0.23) on hot carcass weight, backfat thickness, loin depth, or fat free lean index, but dressing percentage tended to improve (P

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of including pelleted and re-ground distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) on pellet durability and pellet mill performance in pelleted corn-soy based swine diets. Pelleted and re-ground DDGS have the potential to greatly improve handling and shipping of DDGS because of improvements in material flow and bulk density. The pellet manufacturing experiments were completed at the Department of Grain Science and Industry’s Feed Research Facility at Kansas State University. Pellet durability index (PDI), electrical energy consumption, production rate, and bulk density served as the response criteria. The levels of DDGS evaluated were 10%, 20%, and 30%. Diets containing pelleted and re-ground DDGS were compared to diets with unpelleted DDGS added at the same levels and to a control diet with no added DDGS. Concerning PDI, the diets containing pelleted and re-ground DDGS showed no significant differences from the control at any inclusion level, while the diets containing unpelleted DDGS at 20% and 30% had significantly lower pellet durability than the control. Concerning the production response criteria, the diets containing pelleted and re-ground DDGS were superior or equal to treatments containing unpelleted DDGS. The data demonstrates that pelleted and re-ground DDGS do not negatively impact pellet durability or pelleting performance, and in fact may offer slight benefits, and therefore can be considered as an option for improving some aspects of working with DDGS.

An experiment was designed to determine the effect of hydrothermal treatment (HT) on the coefficient of apparent ileal digestibilities (CAID) of crude protein (CP), amino acids (AA), starch and phosphorous (P) in growing pigs (initial body weight (BW) of 29.5 ± 2.4 kg) fitted with a T-cannula in distal ileum. The mash, based on wheat, fishmeal and soybean meal, was subjected to four HT, giving diets: (1) unconditioned mash as control; (2) low-temperature steam conditioning before pelleting (SC-Low); (3) high-temperature steam conditioning before pelleting (SP-High); (4) expander conditioning before pelleting (EXP); and (5) extruder processing (EXT). The diets were fed to five growing pigs allotted to treatments in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The HT (average of four HT diets) increased CAID of starch (P=0.001), but did not affect that of DM, CP or P. The CAID for total indispensible AA was improved by HT processing (P=0.041), as were the CAID for Arg (P=0.018), Ile (P=0.044), Lys (P=0.006) and Thr (P=0.013), when compared to the control. For Lys, CAID was greater (P=0.006) for pigs fed the HT diets compared to the control and for the average of EXP and EXT compared to the average of SC-Low and SC-High. For dispensable AA, CAID were not affected by the treatments. In conclusion, HT increased ileal digestibility of starch, total IAA, Arg, Ile, Lys and Thr compared to a control diet fed as mash in growing pigs, with expander conditioning and extruder processing of particular merit for Lys.

The aim of the present study was to investigate effects of feed conditioning prior to pelleting and extrusion processing on average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), gain to feed (G:F) and coefficient of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) in nursery pigs and broiler chickens. The mash, based on wheat, fishmeal and soybean meal, was subjected to 4 heat treatments (hydro-thermal processing) giving Diet 1: unconditioned mash as control (mash); Diet 2: low-temperature steam conditioning before pelleting (STP47); Diet 3: high-temperature steam conditioning before pelleting (STP90); Diet 4: expander conditioning before pelleting (EXP); and Diet 5: extruder processing (EXT). Nursery pigs (average body weight of 5.6 kg) were used in a 36-d experiment. The results showed that hydro-thermal processing improved G:F in nursery pigs (P=0.006) compared to the mash. The G:F was also improved for pigs fed the EXT diet compared to the EXP diet (P=0.030). The CTTAD of dry matter was greater in pigs fed the hydro-thermal processed diets compared to the mash (P=0.018), and in pigs fed the STP47 compared to the STP90 (P=0.001). The CTTAD of organic matter was improved for pigs fed STP47 and STP90 diets compared to the EXP and EXT diets (P=0.010), and for the STP47 compared to the STP90 diets (P=0.001). The CTTAD of protein (P=0.004) and energy (P=0.001) was greatest in pigs fed the STP47 compared to the STP90. Starch digestibility was improved in pigs fed the EXT compared to the EXP diet (P=0.041). Broiler chickens (1-d old, average body weight of 41 g) were used in a 21-d experiment. The ADFI and ADG were greater (P In conclusion, hydro-thermal processing, in particular extruder processing, improved G:F for nursery pigs due to improved digestibility. For broiler chickens, all hydro-thermal processing increased starch digestibility, but due to reduced feed intake of the expanded and in particular the extruded diets, only steam conditioning before pelleting improved growth rate and feed utilisation.

Three experiments were conducted to determine the effects of supplementing cracked corn into diets of nursery and finishing pigs. In Exp. 1, 144 pigs were used in a 28-d trial. Pigs (PIC TR4 × 1050; initially 16.5 lb) were weaned and allotted with 6 pigs per pen (3 barrows and 3 gilts) and 6 pens per treatment. All pigs were fed a common diet for 7 d postweaning and the experimental diets for the next 28 d. Treatments were corn-soybean meal-based in the form of mash, pellets, and pellets with 100% of the corn either ground (618 μm) or cracked (3,444 μm) and blended into the diet after the rest of the formulation (the supplement) had been pelleted. Overall (d 0 to 28), ADG and F/G improved when pigs were fed the mash control compared to the pelleted diets (P < 0.001); however, this response was caused by the poor performance of pigs fed the supplement treatments, with the pigs fed the complete pellets having improved (P < 0.01) ADG and F/G compared with pigs fed the pelleted supplement blended with ground and cracked corn. Finally, pigs fed the supplement blended with cracked corn had numerically lower (P < 0.11) ADG and poorer (P < 0.001) F/G compared to those fed the supplement blended with ground corn.

SUMMARY Meat birds fed high-quality pellets exhibit advantages in rate and efficiency of growth over birds fed poorer quality pellets. However, the associated feed manufacturing cost and reduced production rates to obtain high-quality pellets are viewed by the industry as offsetting the benefits in broiler performance provided by high-quality pellets. With the combination of increased costs for utilities in the feed mill and for feed ingredients, strategies are needed to conserve milling costs while optimizing the efficiency of broiler growth. In this study, we evaluated the effects of feed form on live performance and meat yield of broiler chickens during a 42-d production period. Four treatments were provided from 18 to 42 d of age: 1) high-quality pellets (88% pellet durability index), 2) low-quality pellets (66% pellet durability index), 3) a proportion of the formulated corn added post-pellet (89% pellet durability index), and 4) mash (corn was ground via a roller mill). Broilers fed the high-quality pellets had higher cumulative BW gain and consumed more feed than birds fed low-quality pellets. Mash-fed broilers had poorer growth performance and less meat recovery than birds in the other treatments. Adding corn post-pellet resulted in broilers having similar performance and meat yields compared with those fed high-quality pellets. In this study, we confirm that adding corn post-pellet does not negatively affect growth performance and meat yield. Feeding broilers high-quality pellets provides a benefit in growth rate over feeding low-quality pellets by increasing feed consumption.

The American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) publishes a standard for identifying particle size by sieving (ASABE S319.4). However, this standard includes a number of options that allow the test to be conducted differently, and different laboratories may analyze a single sample with different results. Options include the type of sieve shaker used, the use of sieve agitators, the use of a dispersion agent, and the sieving time. A small study was conducted to examine the effect of varying these methods on the calculated geometric mean diameter by weight (dgw) and geometric standard deviation by weight (sgw). Results indicated that large differences existed depending on the methods used, with dgw varying by as much as 100 microns, and sgw varying by as much as 0.42 simply by altering one option. When compounding the differences in methods, the variations can be even larger. These discrepancies demonstrate that, for particle size analysis by sieving to be used as an effective tool, the same methodology must be used to compare samples. Additionally, the data demonstrate that unless the methods in the current standard are better defined, dgw and sgw should be used only as relative values for comparison.

Primary Audience: Feed Mill Managers and Nutritionists SUMMARY Typically, in a vertically integrated poultry (broiler or turkey) operation, maintaining adequate feed manufacturing production proves to be a challenge. To evaluate an alternative management strategy, 2 studies were conducted to examine the effects of feeding broilers cracked corn and a concentrated pellet on broiler growth performance from 0 to 41 d of age. Cracked corn (0, 25, 50, 75, or 100%) was used to replace the corn fraction in the diet for all 3 stages of growth. Cracked corn and concentrate pellets were blended together to be isonitrogenous and isocaloric among all treatments, so only feed form would differ. Experiment 1 diets included a control (0% cracked corn) and experimental diets (25, 50, 75, or 100%) in which cracked corn directly replaced the ground corn fraction. Overall (0 to 41 d), a linear decrease (P < 0.001) for ADG and ADFI and a linear increase (P < 0.003) for FCR was observed as cracked corn levels increased. In experiment 2, a “step-up” feeding program of cracked corn was evaluated with dietary treatments including the following: 1) control (0% cracked corn throughout feeding), 2) 0% cracked corn (0 to 17 d) and 25% (18 to 41 d), 3) 0% cracked corn (0 to 17 d) and 50% (18 to 41 d), 4) 25% cracked corn (0 to 41 d), and 5) 50% cracked corn (0 to 41 d). Overall (0 to 41 d), ADG for treatment 1, 2, and 4 was greater than 3 and 5 (P < 0.05). Feed conversion ratio was superior for treatments 2 and 4 (P < 0.05) in comparison with treatments 3 and 5. Up to 25% of the dietary corn can be fed to the broiler as cracked corn from 0 to 41 d without a negative response on growth performance.

Two diets for finishing pigs were used to determine the effect of adding water into the mixer on processing characteristics and pellet quality. Diet 1 was based on barley, oats and soybean meal (barley-based diet) and Diet 2 was based on maize and soybean meal (maize-based diet). Both diets were produced without and with use of an expander. Adding up to 120 g water/kg into the mixer prior to steam conditioning and pelleting (steam conditioning) of the barley-based diet, improved pelleting efficiency, pellet durability index (PDI) and modified PDI (with five hexagonal nuts added into the tumbling box), by 15, 10 and 10%, respectively. When water was added into the mixer prior to expanding the barley-based diet, PDI increased from 93 to 95% and modified PDI from 91 to 94%. The maize-based diet was processed with motor load held constant to maximize feed mill output, and production rate held constant to minimize energy use. At a constant motor load and a constant production rate, adding up to 30 g water/kg into the maize-based diet prior to steam conditioning increased pelleting efficiency by 22 and 9%, PDI was improved from 84 to 89% and from 79 to 87%, respectively. Expander conditioning of the maize-based diet increased PDI from 92% at none to 94% at 30 g/kg water addition. Correspondingly, modified PDI was increased from 89 to 93% at none and 30 g water/kg into the mixer prior to expander conditioning. The overall conclusion from the experiment was that adding water into the mixer before steam conditioning improved pelleting efficiency and pellet quality in barley- and maize-based diet for finishing pigs.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of diets containing crude glycerol on pellet mill production efficiency and nursery pig growth performance. In a pilot study, increasing crude glycerol (0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15%) in a corn-soybean meal diet was evaluated for pellet mill production efficiency. All diets were steam conditioned to 65.5 degrees C and pelleted through a pellet mill equipped with a die that had an effective thickness of 31.8 mm and holes 3.96 mm in diameter. Each diet was replicated by manufacturing a new batch of feed 3 times. Increasing crude glycerol increased both the standard (linear and quadratic, P < 0.01) and modified (linear, P < 0.01; quadratic, P

Three experiments were conducted to determine the effects of expander conditioning on nutritional value of diets without and with cornand sorghum-based dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS). In Exp. 1, 180 nursery pigs (average weight 29 lb) were assigned to 30 pens. Treatments were arranged as a 3 × 2 factorial with main effects of diet formulation (corn-soybean meal vs. 30% cornor sorghum-based DDGS) and conditioning (standard steam vs. expander) prior to pelleting. Pigs fed corn-soybean meal diets had better (P 0.83) but improved overall F/G and dressing percentage (P < 0.007). In Exp. 3, 192 finishing pigs (average weight 222 lb) were assigned to 16 pens to determine nutrient digestibility. Treatments were the same as in Exp. 2. Feed and water was consumed ad libitum during a 6-d adjustment period; then, feces were collected for 2 d. Corn-soybean meal diets had greater (P < 0.001) digestibility of DM, N, and GE than diets with DDGS, and expander conditioning improved (P < 0.02) digestibility of DM, N, and GE compared with standard conditioning. However, the improved digestibility of DM with expander conditioning was apparent primarily for the DDGS diets (diet × conditioning interaction, P < 0.01). In conclusion, expanding diets improved ADG, F/G, and nutrient digestibility in nursery pigs and F/G, dressing percentage, and nutrient digestibility in finishing pigs fed diets without and with DDGS.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of adding 5% Morinda citrifolia (noni; Morinda Agricultural Products, Orem, UT) to diets for weanling pigs. In Exp. 1, 48 pigs (initially 9.3 lb) were used in a 29-d preference study. There were 6 pigs per pen and 8 pens total. The pens were equipped with 2 identical feeders (for diets without and with noni puree), and position of the feeders was switched each afternoon to prevent feeder location from affecting diet consumption. The diets were corn-soybean meal-based, pelleted, and had 1.8% lysine for d 0 to 5, 1.6% lysine for d 5 to 15, and 1.4% lysine for d 15 to 29. Feed and water were consumed on an ad libitum basis. No differences were noted among diets without and with noni for pelleting ease and pellet durability index (PDI). Feed intake was increased for d 0 to 5 (0.11 vs. 0.23 lb/d, P 0.39) for d 0 to 29. In Exp. 2, 96 pigs (initially 14.8 lb) were used in a 29-d growth assay. There were 6 pigs per pen and 8 pens per treatment. The diets were the same as those used in the first experiment. Results indicated no differences (P > 0.29) in ADG, ADFI, and F/G for d 0 to 5 and 0 to 15 between pigs fed diets without and with noni. However, for d 15 to 29 and overall (d 0 to 29), ADG and ADFI were decreased (P < 0.04) for pigs fed diets with noni compared with the control. In conclusion, there was a preference for diets with noni for the first 15 d of the preference study. In the growth assay, prolonged feeding of diets with noni resulted in reduced feed intake and, ultimately, decreased rate of gain.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of concentration (0, 0.75, 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0%) of Morinda citrifolia (noni; Morinda Agricultural Products, Orem, UT) and diet complexity in weanling pigs. In Exp. 1, 210 pigs (initially 13.4 lb) were used in a 35-d growth assay; there were 7 pigs per pen and 6 pens per treatment. Diets were cornsoybean meal-based, and lysine concentrations were 1.8% for d 0 to 7, 1.6% for d 7 to 21, and 1.4% for d 21 to 35 with feed and water consumed on an ad libitum basis. Increasing the concentration of noni in the diet from 0 to 3% had no effects on pellet durability index (PDI) for the d 0 to 7 and 7 to 21 diets. Average daily gain (quadratic effect, P < 0.03) and F/G (quadratic effect, P < 0.10) for d 0 to 7 and F/G for d 0 to 21 (quadratic effect, P < 0.04) improved as noni concentration in the diet was increased from 0 to 0.75%. However, no treatment effects were observed overall (d 0 to 35). For Exp. 2, 168 pigs (initially 13.9 lb) were used in a 35-d growth assay; there were 6 pigs per pen and 7 pens per treatment. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial with main effects of diet formulation (simple vs. complex) and noni addition (0 vs. 3%). Simple diets had the same minimum nutrient specifications as complex diets but had no added lactose or spray-dried animal plasma for d 0 to 7 and only 10% added whey for d 7 to 21. Pelleting data indicated improved PDI with no additional energy inputs when noni was added to the simple diets (for d 21 to 35). Pigs fed simple diets had lower ADG (P < 0.06) for d 0 to 7 and lower ADG and ADFI (P < 0.06) for d 0 to 21 than pigs fed complex diets. During d 0 to 35 for ADG and d 0 to 21 for F/G, addition of noni to the simple diets had negative effects (diet complexity × noni interaction, P < 0.02). In conclusion, adding 0.75 to 3% noni to complex diets improved growth performance early in a titration experiment but had negative effects when added to the simple diet formulations used in a second experiment.

Primary Audience: Feed Mill Managers, Feed Mill Quality Control Managers, Nutritionists SUMMARY An experiment was conducted evaluating several markers to determine mix uniformity. Treatment diet was a corn-soybean meal-based diet formulated for broiler chicks fed from 0 to 17 d posthatch. Dietary nutrients or tracers evaluated included the following: 1) DL-Met (99%), 2) L-Lys-HCl (78%), 3) CP, 4) mixing salt (chloride ion), 5) P, 6) Mn, 7) Fe particles (#40 Red, count), 8) Fe particles (#40 Red, absorbance), 9) Fe particles (RF-Blue Lake), 10) roxarsone, and 11) semduramicin. All minor and microingredients were individually hand-weighed and added to the mixer to insure accuracy and were added at the same location for all treatments. Diets were mixed using a double ribbon mixer for 3 different mix times (0.5, 2.5, and 5.0 min). Overall, from 0.5 to 5.0 min, all markers evaluated showed a numerical reduction in percentage of CV. Crude protein and P should not be considered as markers, because many different components in the batch of feed contribute some level of CP or P, and results can be confounding. DL-Methionine (99%) and L-Lys-HCl (78%) were the only markers that statistically reduced over time and had aC V< 10% (23.86 to 9.47% and 19.75 to 8.70%, respectively). These data suggest that mixer uniformity results can be influenced by the particular marker that is chosen for mixer uniformity analysis.

Crude glycerol is a by-product of the biofuels industry, which has the potential to be used as a feed ingredient in animal diets. However, little is known about glycerol’s nutritional value or how it impacts feed quality and feed processing efficiency. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of glycerol on production efficiency of a pellet mill. In all three experiments, diets were manufactured, pelleted, and data collected at the KSU Grain Science Feed Mill. All diets were steam conditioned to 85°F and pelleted at 150°F using a CPM pellet mill equipped with a 4 mm × 32 mm pellet die. In Exp. 1, the six treatments were a corn-soybean meal-based swine grower diet formulated to contain 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15% crude glycerol. Experiment 2 included seven treatments: the control with no added soy oil or glycerol, the control diet with 3 or 6% added soy oil, the control diet with 3 or 6% added glycerol, and the control with 6 or 12% of a 50:50 soy oil to glycerol blend. Experiment 3 included five treatments: a control with no added lactose or glycerol, the control diet with 3.6 or 7.2% lactose, or the control with 3.6 or 7.2% glycerol. Each experimental diet was replicated by manufacturing a new batch of feed three times. Glycerol lowered delta temperature, amperage, and motor load in Exp. 1, 2, and 3. The addition of glycerol consistently improved pellet quality. Production rate was not affected by the addition of glycerol; however, glycerol decreased total energy usage (KWh/t). Furthermore, glycerol can be added to a diet in combination with soy oil in a blend to improve production efficiency and pellet quality compared to a diet containing only soy oil. The addition of glycerol will improve the production efficiency of pelleting, pellet quality, and decrease energy cost when included in diets prior to pelleting.

A series of 4 experiments evaluated effects of mash conditioning temperature from a pellet mill or expander on performance of broilers fed pelleted diets containing spray-dried plasma (SDP). All experiments utilized Ross x Ross 308 male broilers randomly assigned to their respective treatments (6 or 10 broilers/pen and 8 or 10 pens/treatment). Treatments in Exp. 1 consisted of a control (0% SDP), SDP coated postpelleting, or SDP blended into the meal prepelleting. Experiment 2 and 3 included the same 3 treatments as in Exp. 1 but with additional treatments of SDP blended into the meal and conditioned at 90 or 95 degrees C before pelleting. In Exp. 4, treatments consisted of a control (0% SDP) or SDP blended into the meal and pelleted (85 degrees C conditioning temperature) or expanded (149 degrees C final effective temperature) and then pelleted. Corn-soybean meal-based diets were formulated to be equal in lysine and ME in all experiments. Pelleted diets were conditioned for 15 s at 85 degrees C, and expanded diets were conditioned at 95 degrees C, 29.7 MJ/t, 13.95 kg/cm2 cone pressure, exit temperature of 149 degrees C, and then pelleted through a 4 x 32-mm die. In Exp. 1, ADG and feed intake were improved (P < 0.05) for broilers fed SDP from d 1 to 28 of age, with greater BW at d 42. In Exp. 2, both in early (d 1 to 28 of age) phases, and overall (d 1 to 42 of age), broilers fed SDP had improved (P < 0.05) gain and efficiency. In Exp. 3, ADG, feed intake, efficiency of gain, and BW were improved (P < 0.01) for broilers fed SDP from d 1 to 21 of age, regardless of conditioning temperature. In Exp. 4, broilers fed SDP had improved (P < 0.05) gain, BW, and feed intake regardless of processing method. Overall, the results of all of the experiments demonstrated that pellet conditioning temperature from 85 to 95 degrees C and expander temperatures to 149 degrees C did not impair the positive growth effects of SDP in pelleted or expanded broiler feed.

Maintaining an optimal pelleting production rate can be difficult when manufacturing feeds for meat birds. Increased production time may be required to fill feed demand and feed outages occur if demand is not met. Identifying management strategies to enhance overall feed production rate without compromising broiler performance is warranted. This study examined the effects of adding varying amounts of corn, ground through a roller mill, to pelleted supplements on feed production parameters, growth performance, and intestinal strength of broiler chickens. Four treatments were used from 18 to 41 d, which included a control (total diet pelleted), and addition of rolled corn to pelleted supplements at 15, 25, and 35% of the corn required in diet formulation. The final diets fed were identical in nutrient composition. Decreasing the amount of ground corn in the pelleted supplement did not affect pellet durability index in the grower diet, but pellet quality declined in the finisher diet. The dietary treatments did not adversely affect final BW gain or feed conversion. Progressive additions of ground corn to pelleted supplement did not affect gizzard weight or peak force intestinal strength. These data indicate that 35% of the formula corn can be added postpellet to reduce electrical cost for grinding and pelleting and improve overall production rate without adversely affecting cumulative growth performance of broilers.

The quality of pelleted feeds is dependent on several variables among which formulation is recognized as having the heaviest influence. An experiment was conducted to investigate the functional properties of feed ingredient components when these ingredients were blended at different proportions on the physical quality of pelleted feeds as measured by the pellet durability index (PDI). Thirteen treatments consisting of different inclusion levels of corn, soybean meal, and soybean oil were designed and a total of 18 batches manufactured, processed, and tested for PDI. Three-dimensional plots were used to depict the relationships between composition of the formulations and PDI. Results showed only a weak dependence of the response on the starch levels in the formulas and the degree of starch gelatinization. Protein, especially from soybean meal, had a positive effect on PDI, whereas a strong negative effect was observed following fat inclusion in the mixer at levels >6.5%. Empirical equations devise...

SUMMARY An experiment was conducted to determine if pelleting diets affected estimated digestible lysine needs for body weight gain (BWG) and feed efficiency (FE) of male broilers from 16 to 30 d. A 2 × 5 factorial treatment arrangement was achieved by feeding diets in 2 forms (mash and steamconditioned pellets) with 5 levels of digestible lysine (0.75, 0.85, 0.95, 1.05, and 1.15% of the diet). Six pens of 25 male broilers were fed each dietary treatment. Performance of birds fed pelleted diets with digestible dietary lysine levels above 0.95% was generally superior to that of birds fed mash diets, regardless of lysine level. Weight gain and FE data were fitted to an exponential model, and digestible lysine needs were estimated at 95% of the asymptote of the model. Dietary digestible lysine needs of mash-fed birds from 16 to 30 d for BWG and FE were 0.87 and 0.90%, respectively. Dietary digestible lysine needs for pellet-fed birds for BWG and FE were 1.00 and 0.99%, respectively. These data suggest that feed form is a factor influencing estimated lysine needs of broilers in dose-response studies.

Cereal grains and oilseed byproducts are major components of diets commercially fed to poultry and swine. Although phosphorus levels are relatively high in these feedstuffs, most of it is presented as phytate and thus, unavailable to monogastric species. Wheat bran is known for having high endogenous phytase enzyme activity. This study was conducted to investigate the ability of wheat bran endogenous phytase to withstand the high temperatures associated with the pelleting process. Additionally, to evaluate the efficacy of this enzyme source in improving phytate phosphorus utilization by broiler chicks. Wheat bran was subjected to steam conditioning/pelleting at temperatures between 50 C and 90 C. Test diets were o o formulated with levels of available phosphorus (AvP) below those recommended by the NRC. Wheat bran was incorporated into test diets at 5% inclusion level in either the unprocessed form or after being subjected to steam conditioning at 60 C and 80 C followed by pelleting. Live weight gain, feed efficiency and toe ash o o measurements were observed as response variables to available phosphorus in the diets. Considerable losses in endogenous phytase activity in wheat bran were observed after steam conditioning at th e aforementioned temperatures. However, based on the observations, the inclusion of wheat bran in th e unprocessed form positively influenced the bird's ability to utilize phosphorus present in the diet.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of feed form on lysine and dietary energy levels necessary for maximum body weight gain (BWG) and feed efficiency (FE) of male broilers from 14 to 30 d and to determine if birds realize a benefit in productive energy from consuming pelleted diets. A 2 x 3 x 2 factoria l treatment arrangement was achieved by feeding diets in two forms (mash and steam- conditioned pellets) with three levels of digestible lysine (0.85, 0.95 and 1.05 % of the diet) and two dietary energy levels (3050 and 3200 kcal ME/kg). Male broiler chicks were provided a nutritionally adequate diet (3100 kcal ME/kg and 22.7% CP) from 0-13 d. Four pens of 32 birds were fed each dietary treatment. Mean body weight and feed consumption were obtained at 14 and 30 d. Average feed intake (AFI) was used to calculate lysine conversion ratio and calories consumed per bird. Pellet-fed birds consumed significantly less digestible lysine (P=0.0061) to achieve the same amount of BWG as the mash-fed birds. Pellet-fed birds exhibited a linear increase in BWG (P=0.0188) with increasing lysine concentrations, while mash-fed birds did not display a growth response at digestible lysine levels greater than 0.85%. Birds fed 3200 kcal ME/kg diets had greater BWG (P=0.006) than those fed 3050 kcal diets. No feed form x dietary energy level interaction was observed for any parameter. Feed form had no effect on AFI (P=0.3784). These findings suggest that improved BWG obtained with pelleted diets may be the result of reduced energy expenditure during meal consumption, indicating that feed form may influence perceived nutrient needs.

A novel product containing raw soybean hulls (RSH) and corn steep liquor (CSL) was developed and evaluated. Feed processing techniques evaluated were: (1) CSL inclusions (0, 50, 80, 100, 120, 150, 200, and 250 g/kg of pellet dry matter [DM]) at the pellet mill conditioner; (2) CSL inclusions (100, 150, and 200 g/kg of pellet DM) using an expander as the sole source of thermal processing; and (3) treating a 200 g/kg CSL inclusion (DM basis) with expander cone pressures of 10.5, 14.0, 17.6, and 21.0 kg/cm2. Improvements in pellet quality were observed with increasing amounts of CSL independent of processing method. However, both pellet durability and electrical energy efficiencies during processing were optimized when CSL was applied at the pellet mill conditioner at a rate to produce pellets containing 750 g/kg RSH and 250 g/kg CSL (raw soybean hull-condensed corn steep liquor pellet (SHSL), DM basis). Increasing the concentration of CSL (up to 250 g/kg of pellet DM) resulted in higher pellet equilibrium moisture contents (EMCs) and reduced the urease activity in RSH. The chemical compositions of RSH, CSL, and SHSL are presented.

The pilot feed mill at Kansas State University was heated to temperatures of ⩾50°C for 28–35 h during August 4–6, 1999 using natural gas heaters to kill stored-product insects. A three-parameter nonlinear regression model satisfactorily described temperature profiles on each of the four mill floors and was useful in showing differences among floors in the number of hours taken to reach 50°C and hours above 50°C. Pitfall traps with food and pheromone lures and sticky traps with pheromone lures were used to sample adults of beetles and moths, respectively, between July 8 and December 1, 1999 to evaluate heat treatment effectiveness. A total of 32 insect species representing 26 families in seven orders were captured in traps. Immediately after heat treatment, there was 95% reduction in total beetle captures in pitfall traps and 99% reduction in moth captures in sticky traps. Trap captures of the almond moth, Cadra cautella (Walker) and cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (L.) were significantly reduced and remained low after heat treatment. However, trap captures of the flat grain beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus (Schoenherr), Indianmeal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hubner), and red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) increased gradually after heat treatment, especially on the 1st and 4th floors. Our results indicated that traps are valuable tools for gauging the degree and duration of insect suppression obtained by heat treatment. In addition to trapping, visual inspection of the mill areas and absolute sampling of ingredients, products and spillage should be undertaken, so that areas of incipient insect reinfestation can be identified and potential problems rectified or averted.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of expander processing and enzyme supplementation of wheat-based diets on growth performance and nutrient digestibility in finishing pigs. For Exp. 1, 60 finishing pigs (average initial BW of 49.5 kg) were fed meal, standard pellets and expanded pellets in a 70 d growth assay. From 49.5 to 79.0 kg, 79.0 to 111.8 kg, and overall (49.5 to 111.8 kg), ADG and ADFI were not affected by pelleting or standard vs expander conditioning (p>0.22). However, from 49.5 to 79.0 kg, pigs fed pellets have greater gain/feed than pigs fed mash (p

An experimental shrimp diet was processed at four moisture levels (34%, 37%, 40%, and 43%) and two water temperatures (26°C and 100°C) and formed into feed pellets by means of a meat grinder. Eight pellet samples were immersed in a seawater aquarium for 1, 2, and 4 hours to test the water stability index (WSI) of these pellets in a 2 3 3 3 4 factorial design. Results showed that mean WSI of pellets ranged from 73.8% to 94.5%. Pellets processed at 40% moisture with 100°C water, immersed in water for 1 hour, had the highest WSI. Pellets processed with 100°C water had significantly higher WSI than those processed with 26°C water (P 0.05). Pellets imm...

One hundred and twenty nine primiparous sows were used to determine the effects of alternative processing procedures and feeding systems on the nutritional value of sorghum grain-based diets for lactating sows. Treatments were a ground sorghum control, steam-flaked sorghum and extruded sorghum fed in meal form and the ground sorghum control given as pellets or gruel (1:1 ratio of water and feed on a volume:volume basis). Average daily feed intake was greater for sows fed pelleted and gruel diet forms than sow fed the diets with steam-flaked and extruded sorghum (p 0.14). Number of pigs weaned and livability rates were similar among treatments except that steam-flaked sorghum supported greater litter weight gains than extruded sorghum (p 0.35), but keratinization was greatest for sows fed extruded sorghum (p

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of reducing particle size of corn from 1,000 to 500 µm in simple and complex diets for nursery pigs and broiler chicks. In Exp 1., 192 nursery pigs were used in a 24 d growth assay. Treatments were: 1) 1,000 µm corn in a simple diet; 2) 500 µm corn in a simple diet; 3) 1,000 µm corn in a complex diet; and 4) 500 µm corn in a complex diet. Overall, pigs fed complex diets had 9% greater ADG (p

A 35.8% crude protein shrimp diet containing 24.5% fish meal was modified by substituting either a regular feather meal or a high-digestibility feather meal for 33.3, 66.7, and 100% of fish meal on an equal weight basis. Additionally, synthetic amino acids were added to both types of feather meal diets so that their total lysine and methionine contents were the same as those of the fish meal-based control diet. After an 8-week growth assay, shrimp body weight ranged from 0.92 to 2.83 g, and survival was in the range from 58.3 to 76.4%. No body weight difference occurred between shrimp fed diets based on either type of feather meal (P= 0.178). However, a significant weight difference existed between shrimp fed both types of feather meals with amino acid supplementation and those without amino acid supplementation (P= 0.023). Shrimp fed 33.3% fish meal replacement diets grew faster than those with 66.7 or 100% fish meal replacement diets (P= 0.043 and P= 0.012, respectively). Supplementing amino ac...

A 35.5% crude protein shrimp diet containing 24.5% fish meal was modified by replacing fish meal with two types of poultry by-product meals (regular poultry by-product meal [PBM] and low-ash petfood-grade poultry by-product meal [PBMPG]) at 33.3, 66.7, and 100% on an equal weight (w/w) basis. Additionally, the PBM and PBMPG were defatted, and fish oil was added back so that their oil contents were the same as the original. These modified meals also were used to replace fish meal at 33.3, 66.7, and 100% on w/w basis. Thirteen diets (including a fish meal control diet) were fed to 936 shrimp of average weight 0.17±0.05 g. After an 8-week growth period, final body weight of the shrimp ranged from 1.09 to 2.21 g, and survival ranged from 62.5 to 84.7%. No body weight differences were observed between shrimp fed diets based on PBM and PBMPG (P= 0.188) or between shrimp fed PBM with and without fish oil supplementation (P= 0.549). However, shrimp fed the 33.3 or 66.7% fish meal replacement diets grew f...

Fine-grinding of high-fat animal protein meals often is necessary prior to inclusion in shrimp diets. The effects of pulverizing and defatting two types of poultry by-product meals (regular poultry by-product meal [PBM] and low-ash petfood-grade poultry by-product meal [PBMPG]) and the effects of pulverizing two types of feather meal (hydrolyzed feather meal [FM] and a high-digestibility feather meal [FMHD]) on particle size reduction, moisture loss, and electrical energy consumption were investigated. Pulverizing PBM resulted in a significant reduction in particle size (415 vs. 223 μm; P 0.05) nor defatting (371 vs. 245 \im;P> 0.05) significantly reduced particle siz...

The sorghums used in our experiment (mill-run, red feed-quality, and white foodquality) had greater true grinding efficiency than corn. Mill-run sorghum also ground easier and with greater true efficiency than the red and food quality (white seed/tan plant) experimental sorghums. Diets with the red sorghum had greater pellet production rate and pellet durability index than diets with the food-quality sorghum. In a nursery pig growth assay, corn-based diets had greater digestibility of gross energy than the sorghum diets, and the white sorghum had greater digestibilities of dry matter, nitrogen, and gross energy than the red sorghum. However, ADG, ADFI, and G/F were not different among pigs fed the various cereal grains.

We have reported previously that pelleting improves rate and(or) efficiency of gain in finishing pigs. However, we also reported that increased amounts of pellet fines reduced the effects of pelleting diets. Other data from our laboratory indicated that wet/dry feeders improved rate and(or) efficiency of growth in finishing pigs fed a meal diet, and that pellet quality might be of lesser significance when a wet/dry feeder is used. Thus, we designed an experiment to determine the effects of pellet quality in pigs fed from wet/dry feeders.

In previous reports from KSU, we demonstrated that wet/dry shelf-feeders supported greater rates and(or) efficiencies of gain compared to conventional dry feeders. However, it has not been demonstrated whether the benefits observed with the wet/dry feeders resulted from the deep-bowl design that might prevent feed wastage or from the wet/dry concept. Thus, we designed an experiment to compare growth performance of finishing pigs when fed from conventional dry feeders and shelf-feeders used to deliver feed in dry or wet/dry form.

Wheat contaminated with teliospores of Tilletia controversa Kuhn (TCK) was mixed with uncontaminated wheat and processed through the Kansas State University pilot mill. Two 50-bu lots of the contaminated mixture were cleaned, tempered, and milled. Approximately 500 samples of wheat, cleanings, and mill fractions were collected and examined for the presence of intact and broken TCK teliospores. Whole wheat samples (50 g) were washed, sieved through a 60-μm nylon sieve, and pelleted by centrifugation. Contents of the pellet were examined microscopically for the presence of TCK spores. The procedure was modified as needed to accommodate cleanings and mill fractions. Levels of spore contamination in whole wheat samples decreased at each step during the handling process, and large numbers of spores were found in materials that were sieved or aspirated from the grain. Very few spores were found in bran, germ, and shorts; none were detected in red dog or straight-grade flour. The results showed that a h...

Diet ingredients consisting of a mixture of fish meal, hard red winter wheat, shrimp meal, and soybean meal were ground from an initial particle size of 603 μ to 586, 521, 408, 272,124, and 69 μ geometric mean particle diameter to evaluate their effects on pellet properties, shrimp growth and survival, and cost of grinding. Results indicated that pellet water stability, pellet durability, starch gelatiniza-tion, shrimp live weight, and weekly weight gain were significantly enhanced (P

Feed cost represents the major item in the cost of animal production. Without doubt, efforts will continue to refine feed processing techniques to reduce the cost of feed and to increase the value of feed for a target animal. The possibilities for improvements in feed processing are endless; however, the cost of each innovation must be carefully weighed against demonstrated improvements in animal performance. In some cases, changes in feed processing technology will be dictated, not by animal response, but by other motivations such as regulatory guidelines or human health concerns. A case in point is the use of hydro-thermal processes, such as pelleting, extrusion, or roasting to reduce the microbiological load in the feed. These processes have been demonstrated to reduce microbial population to near zero, but may have little or no impact on human health risk.