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Oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) of tree-ring cellulose are a novel proxy of summer hydroclimate in monsoonal Asia. In central Japan, we collected 67 conifer wood samples, mainly Chamaecyparis obtusa, with ages encompassing the past 2,600 yr. The samples were taken from living old trees, excavated archeological wood, old architectural wood, and naturally buried logs. We analyzed stable isotope ratios of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δ2H) in tree-ring cellulose in these samples without using a pooling method, and constructed a statistically reliable tree-ring cellulose δ18O time-series for the past 2,500 yr. However, there were distinct age trends and level offsets in the δ18O record, and cellulose δ18O values showed a gradual decrease as an individual tree matures. This suggested it is difficult to establish a cellulose δ18O chronology for low-frequency signals by simple averaging of all the δ18O time-series data. However, there were opposite age trends in the cellulose δ2H, and δ2H gradually increased with tree age. There were clear positive correlations in the short periodicity variations between δ18O and δ2H, probably indicating a common climate signal. A comparison of the δ18O and δ2H time-series in individual trees with tree-ring width suggested that the opposite age trends of δ18O and δ2H are caused by temporal changes in the degree of post-photosynthetic isotope exchange with xylem water, accompanied by changes in stem growth rate (growth effect) that are influenced by human activity in the forests of central Japan. Based on the assumptions that cellulose δ18O and δ2H vary positively and negatively with constant proportional coefficients due to climate variations and the growth effect, respectively, we solved simultaneous equations for the climatological and physiological components of variations in tree-ring cellulose δ18O and δ2H in order to remove the age trend (growth effect). This enabled us to evaluate the climatic record from cellulose δ18O variations. The extracted climatological component in the cellulose δ18O for the past 2,600 yr in central Japan was well correlated with numerous instrumental, historical, and paleoclimatological records of past summer climate at various spatial and temporal scales. This indicates that integration of tree-ring cellulose δ18O and δ2H data is a promising method to reconstruct past summer climate variations on annual to millennial time-scales, irrespective of the growth affect. However, analytical and statistical methods need to be improved for further development of this climate proxy.

Background The degradation of heme significantly contributes to cytoprotective effects against oxidative stress and inflammation. The enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), involved in the degradation of heme, forms carbon monoxide (CO), ferrous iron, and bilirubin in conjunction with biliverdin reductase, and is induced by various stimuli including oxidative stress and heavy metals. We examined the involvement of heme metabolism in the induction of HO-1 by the inducers sulforaphane and sodium arsenite. Methods We examined the expression of HO-1 in sulforaphane-, sodium arsenite- and CORM3-treated HEK293T cells, by measuring the transcriptional activity and levels of mRNA and protein. Results The blockade of heme biosynthesis by succinylacetone and N-methyl protoporphyrin, which are inhibitors of heme biosynthesis, markedly decreased the induction of HO-1. The knockdown of the first enzyme in the biosynthesis of heme, 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase, also decreased the induction of HO-1. The cessation of HO-1 induction occurred at the transcriptional and translational levels, and was mediated by the activation of the heme-binding transcriptional repressor Bach1 and translational factor HRI. CO appeared to improve the expression of HO-1 at the transcriptional and translational levels. Conclusions We demonstrated the importance of heme metabolism in the stress-inducible expression of HO-1, and also that heme and its degradation products are protective factors for self-defense responses. General significance The key role of heme metabolism in the stress-inducible expression of HO-1 may promote further studies on heme and its degradation products as protective factors of cellular stresses and iron homeostasis in specialized cells, organs, and whole animal systems.

This study presents preliminary results of mitochondrial DNA analyses of modern and ancient domestic goats in the southern Caucasus in order to examine their phylogenetic relationship with modern and ancient goats. For this purpose, seven ancient samples were obtained from two early agricultural villages in west Azerbaijan (Goytepe and Haci Elamxanli tepe, dated to ca. 6000–5500 cal bc, the Pottery Neolithic period), in addition to five modern goat samples in the same region. In the study, mitochondrial DNA segments of the control region (216 bp for the Neolithic samples and 481 bp for the modern samples) were amplified, and phylogenetic analyses were performed using previously published reference DNA sequences. As a result, all the haplotypes found in this study were grouped in the haplogroup A of goats. The finding of the haplogroup A among domestic goats in the southern Caucasus in the early sixth millennium bc can be interpreted as part of the geographic expansion of this lineage from the areas of initial domestication to surrounding areas that include also South and Southeast Europe. In the southern Caucasus, the haplogroup A probably continued to be a major lineage among domestic goats since their emergence in this area to the present. In contrast, this lineage has not been detected among local wild goats including Capra aegagrus, indicating the external origin of domestic goats. This possibility is consistent with archaeological records that indicate sudden appearance of agricultural lifeways in the southern Caucasus and cultural connections with northern Mesopotamia. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

BACKGROUND NEDD9 is one of the Crk-associated substrate (Cas) family proteins that mediate downstream signaling processes including cytoskeletal organization, cell-cycle and tumorigenesis. While NEDD9 plays a crucial role in epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), the functional mechanism underlying NEDD9-mediated EMT in prostate cancer (PCa) remains uncertain. METHODS The expression levels of NEDD9 and its downstream molecules in PC-3, LNCaP, and VCaP cells exposed to transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) were determined by western blotting. The invasion of these cells with ectopic overexpression of NEDD9 or silencing of NEDD9 expression was measured by transwell invasion assay. Human tissue samples comprising 45 PCa specimens and ten specimens of normal prostatic tissue were used for immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis of NEDD9 expression. RESULTS Both NEDD9 and its downstream signaling molecules associated with EMT were strongly induced by TGF-β in PCa cells. PC-3 cells with stable overexpression of NEDD9 had a mesenchymal phenotype and significantly enhanced cell invasion, despite their decreased cell proliferation. Knockdown of endogenous NEDD9 expression completely diminished TGF-β-triggered tumor invasion in several PCa cell lines. The IHC data revealed a significant positive correlation between the NEDD9 staining score and tumor aggressiveness (e.g., Gleason grade, serum PSA level). The NEDD9 staining score in primary PCa with bone metastasis was significantly higher than that in PCa without metastasis. CONCLUSIONS NEDD9 may be a key mediator involved in TGF-β-mediated EMT and cell motility in PCa cells and a novel target in the treatment of metastatic PCa and prevention of spread of localized PCa cells to other organs. Prostate 74:901–910, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Octopus (Amphioctopus) areolatus is an important marine cephalopod in Japan. We examined its diploid chromosome number, karyotype, and genome size (C value), and performed fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using a vertebrate telomeric probe. The diploid chromosome number was 60 in embryonic cells, with 24 pairs of metacentric chromosomes, four pairs of metacentric/submetacentric chromosomes, and two pairs of submetacentric chromosomes. The mean C value was estimated to be 5.47 pg. From these findings, and those reported previously for other octopus species, we suggest that the factor causing the quantum change of C value in O. (A.) areolatus was genome duplication, and not polyploidy. In telomeric FISH analysis, hybridization signals were clearly observed in the telomeric regions of the chromosomes. This is the first report of FISH analysis of cephalopod chromosomes, and our findings suggest that the telomere sequence of O. (A.) areolatus is (TTAGGG) n , which may allow gene mapping in the future.

Chemicals are an essential part of modern manufacture processes. Their use must be managed with great attention in occupational settings to avoid serious detrimental effects to the health of employees. For example, cadmium compounds are indispensable for the production of nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries or as chemical stabilizer in plastics. It is an exceptionally toxic heavy metal and personnel exposed to cadmium in the workplace meet with potential health risks that can lead to the development of kidney, skeletal and respiratory disorders. In consequence, proactive and systematical development of occupational hygiene and health activities are necessary to reduce chemical exposure to cadmium in the workplace. This review describes the known facts of cadmium toxicity, the biological effects of cadmium exposure, possible regulation measures to prevent occupational cadmium exposure in three industrial health management systems and discusses future cooperation programs in these systems, proactive safety activities and occupational safety and health management strategies.

進行した強直性脊椎炎では, 換気困難や挿管困難の可能性が考えられる. 今回, 挿管困難が予測されたため気管支ファイバースコープを用いて挿管を行ったが, 抜管時に通常の気管切開は困難で, 気道確保には喉頭截開術が必要となる可能性があることが判明した症例を経験した. 喉頭截開術では, まれではあるが声帯の機能を半永久的に失う可能性があるため, 術前に患者および家族への十分な説明を行う必要があると考えられた.

Oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios (δ18O and δ13C) were analyzed for cellulose extracted from tree rings of 5 oak trees (Quercus crispula) and 4 fir trees (Abies sachalinensis) standing in a 1 ha plot of a sub-boreal conifer-hardwood mixed forest, northern Japan. The δ18O variations were well correlated between individual trees of Q. crispula (canopy trees) and A. sachalinensis (recently grown-up sub-canopy trees), although A. sachalinensis had about 1 ‰ higher δ18O values than Q. crispula on average and there was an apparent one-year phase lag between δ18O variations of the two species. The similar inter-annual variation in δ18O among different individuals and species suggests a common environmental control. Contrary to δ18O, the inter-annual variations in δ13C did not possess any common trends among individual trees for either Q. crispula or A. sachalinesis, suggesting that the ecological effects, such as spatial heterogeneities in δ13C and/or concentration of CO2 in canopy air and/or competition for light with neighboring trees, regulate the δ13C of photosynthetic products in each tree. Seasonal variations of the δ18O and δ13C within annual tree rings of Q. crispula showed random and cyclic characteristics, respectively. The difference between the annual patterns of δ18O and δ13C supports the idea that δ18O is controlled by some environmental factors, which change from year to year, but δ13C is primarily governed by physiological conditions of the tree itself, which repeat regularly in every growing season. The historical variation in δ18O of tree-ring cellulose in Q. crispula has negative correlations with those in both of winter and summer precipitation amounts, whereas it does not show any relationship with temperature, probably due to multiple source areas of water vapor for the precipitation at the studied area. Because the δ18O of precipitation in northern Japan is positively correlated with air temperature, the correlation between δ18O and winter precipitation suggests that, in a year of heavy snowfall, the soil in this forest retains larger amount of lower δ18O water derived from snowmelt, which is taken by roots of Q. crispula in summer. On the other hand, the negative correlation with summer precipitation cannot be elucidated by the δ18O of rainfall, but must be explained by a higher relative humidity in the growing season in a year of larger summer rainfall. Our results confirm the potential of δ18O of tree-ring cellulose to reconstruct past climate in a forest with a heavy snowfall, and suggest the importance of the hydrological knowledge in an atmosphere-soil-plant system for the utilization of tree-ring δ18O in paleoenvironmental purposes.

We present a unique proxy for reconstructing the inter-annual variability of summer precipitation associated with the quasi-stationary front (Baiu front) in central Japan. The rainfall from the Baiu front has a relatively lower oxygen isotopic composition than other types of non-frontal precipitation. The variability in the oxygen isotopes in summer rainfall is closely related to the Baiu frontal activity. In this study we used a mechanistic tree-ring isotope model to reconstruct a 106-year-long oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation during the early rainy season (June) based on the oxygen isotopic compositions of the annual rings of Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl trees from central Japan. The year-to-year variations of the isotopes over the most recent 25 years are associated with several teleconnection patterns that often lead to the Baiu precipitation anomalies in central Japan (such as the Pacific-Japan (PJ) pattern, Silk Road pattern, and wave-train pattern along the polar jet). Yet none of these external forcing mechanisms apply further back in time. From the 1950s to 1980s, the inter-annual isotopic variability is predominantly related to local factors such as anomalous intensification/weakening of the Bonin High. Before the 1950s, the variability of the oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation is mainly associated with a wave-train pattern along the polar jet. The isotopic variability is predominantly linked to the PJ pattern, while the PJ index is correlated with El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These findings suggest that the teleconnection patterns influencing Baiu precipitation variability vary according to interdecadal time scales during the 20th century.

NEDD9 is one of the Crk-associated substrate (Cas) family proteins that mediate downstream signaling processes including cytoskeletal organization, cell-cycle and tumorigenesis. While NEDD9 plays a crucial role in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), the functional mechanism underlying NEDD9-mediated EMT in prostate cancer (PCa) remains uncertain.The expression levels of NEDD9 and its downstream molecules in PC-3, LNCaP, and VCaP cells exposed to transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) were determined by western blotting. The invasion of these cells with ectopic overexpression of NEDD9 or silencing of NEDD9 expression was measured by transwell invasion assay. Human tissue samples comprising 45 PCa specimens and ten specimens of normal prostatic tissue were used for immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis of NEDD9 expression.Both NEDD9 and its downstream signaling molecules associated with EMT were strongly induced by TGF-β in PCa cells. PC-3 cells with stable overexpression of NEDD9 had a mesenchymal phenotype and significantly enhanced cell invasion, despite their decreased cell proliferation. Knockdown of endogenous NEDD9 expression completely diminished TGF-β-triggered tumor invasion in several PCa cell lines. The IHC data revealed a significant positive correlation between the NEDD9 staining score and tumor aggressiveness (e.g., Gleason grade, serum PSA level). The NEDD9 staining score in primary PCa with bone metastasis was significantly higher than that in PCa without metastasis.NEDD9 may be a key mediator involved in TGF-β-mediated EMT and cell motility in PCa cells and a novel target in the treatment of metastatic PCa and prevention of spread of localized PCa cells to other organs.

Diagnostic criteria for the metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Japan have been set by the Medical Committee of the Japanese Association of Medical Sciences (Med), the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (Nat), specific health checkups (Ckup), and second medical examination by Worker's Accident Compensation Insurance System (Wor). The purpose of this study was to compare classification of the metabolic syndrome by different organizational criteria and to investigate underlying differences.All faculty members of a university in Osaka, Japan, underwent mandatory health checkups in September 2008. The demographic distribution included 769 males (mean age, 49 +/- 12 years) and 415 females (mean age, 43 +/- 10 years). Using the Med, Nat, Ckup and Wor criteria, individuals were assessed for the MetS and pre-metabolic syndrome (pre-Mets), strongly suspected metabolic syndrome (S-Mets) and assumed pre-metabolic syndrome (A-pre-Mets), as well as a positive support level (PSL) and a motivational support level (MSL). All faculty members were categorized into a morbid group (Mets, S-Mets, PSL, and FB) or a pre-morbid group (pre-Mets, A-pre-Mets, and MSL) based on medical data and smoking habits. The incidence of morbid and pre-morbid individuals was compared across the four criteria and analyzed based on gender and age (under 40 and 40 or over).Male incidences for the morbid and pre-morbid classifications were 17% and 20% with Med, 9% and 23% with Nat, 27% and 14% with Ckup, and 1.4% and 0% with Wor. There were significant differences across criteria sets in both the morbid and pre-morbid groups, with significantly greater numbers of males than females, and higher prevalences in those aged 40 or over than in their younger counterparts. Males aged under 40 classified into the pre-morbid group comprised 18% in Med, 16% in Nat, and 13% in Ckup.The different disease incidences found between Med and Ckup data in males aged 40 or over might be attributed to varying criteria for blood glucose levels, while Wor data may be influenced by the higher level of blood pressure set as a criterion with this approach. It will be important to continuously validate currently established criteria to identify the actual prevalence of MetS in Japan. Furthermore, incorporation of waist circumference and BMI for females, and a positive approach for young males, may be critical for future developments.

Single doses of europium (III) chloride hexahydrate were orally administered to several groups of rats. Cumulative urine samples were taken at 0–24 h, and blood samples were drawn after 24-h administration. The europium concentration was determined in these samples by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. The volume, creatinine, s-2-microglobulin, and N-acetyl-s-d-glucosaminidase were measured in the urine samples to evaluate possible europium-induced renal effects. The blood samples showed low europium distribution, with an average of 77.5 μg/L for all groups. Although the urinary concentration and excretion showed dose-dependent increases, the percentage of europium excreted showed a dose-dependent decrease, with an average of 0.31% in all groups. The administration of europium resulted in a significant decrease of creatinine and a significant increase of urinary volume, N-acetyl-s-d-glucosaminidase, and s-2-microglobulin. Rare earth elements, including europium, are believed to form colloidal conjugates that deposit in the reticuloendothelial system and glomeruli. This specific reaction may contribute to low europium bioavailability and renal function disturbances. Despite low bioavailability, the high performance of the analytical method for determination of europium makes the blood and urine sampling suitable tools for monitoring of exposure to this element. The results presented in this study will be of great importance in future studies on the health impacts of rare earth elements.

Objectives: This study was designed to investigate the early dynamic state of hydrofluoric acid (HFA) in blood and urine as a model of accidental occupational exposure to a subtoxic dose of HFA. It was also aimed at determining the relationship between the kinetics and harmful effects of HFA on the kidney. Methods: Rats received a single intravenous injection of HFA (3.2, 6.4, or 9.6 (LD5) mg/kg) or saline. The volume of each injection was 1 ml and the concentrations of HFA were 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3%, respectively. Ionized fluoride (F) was measured for the biological monitoring of HFA. Serum F concentrations were determined at 0, 5, 10, 30, 60, 120, and 300 min. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated with two-compartment modeling. Urine was directly collected from bladder for 300 min to determine the extent of the renal damage. Results: AUC0→300 values were significantly higher in the 9.6 mg/kg group than in the 3.2 and 6.4 groups. The total body clearance, V1, V2 and Vss were significantly lower in the 6.4 and 9.6 mg/kg groups than in the 3.2 mg/kg group. These results indicate that HFA was retained in blood. This could be a result of renal dysfunction. NAG/Cr and glucose excretion amount in urine were increased, and the clearance rate of F, urine volume and excretion amounts of electrolytes were decreased in the 9.6 mg/kg group compared with the saline group. These findings indicate renal tubular damage and a decrease in the amount of excretion of HFA from the kidney. Conclusions: We consider that acute nephrotoxicity of HFA caused renal injury, and the harmful effects of HFA were subsequently aggravated by its delayed metabolism.

In osteoclasts, elevation of extracellular Ca2+ is an endogenous signal that inhibits bone resorption. We recently found that an elevation of extracellular Ca2+ decreased proton extrusion through the plasma membrane vacuolar H+-ATPase (V-ATPase) rapidly. In this study we investigated mechanisms underlying this early Ca2+-sensing response, particularly in reference to the activity of the plasma membrane V-ATPase and to membrane retrieval. Whole cell clamp recordings allowed us to measure the V-ATPase currents and the cell capacitance ( Cm) simultaneously. Cm is a measure of cell surface. Extracellular Ca2+ (2.5–40 mM) decreased Cm and the V-ATPase current simultaneously. The decreased Cm, together with the enhanced uptake of a lipophilic dye (FM1–43), indicated that Ca2+ facilitated endocytosis. The endocytosis was blocked by dynamin inhibitors (dynasore and dynamin-inhibitory peptide), by small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting for dynanmin-2 and also by bafilomycin A1, a blocker of V-ATPases. The extracellular Ca2+-induced endocytosis and inhibition of the V-ATPase current were diminished by a phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122) and siRNA targeting for phospholipase C γ2 subunit. Holding the cytosolic Ca2+ at either high (0.5–5 μM) or low levels or inhibiting calmodulin by an inhibitor (W7) or an antibody (anti-CaM) decreased the stimulated endocytosis and the inhibition of the V-ATPase current. These data suggest that extracellular Ca2+ facilitated dynamin- and V-ATPase-dependent endocytosis in association with an inhibition of the plasma membrane V-ATPase. Phospholipase C, cytosolic Ca2+, and calmodulin were involved in the signaling pathways. Membrane retrieval and the plasma membrane V-ATPase activity may cooperate during the early phase of Ca2+-sensing response in osteoclasts.

Bisphosphonates are strong inhibitors of osteoclastic bone resorption in both benign and malignant bone diseases. The nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BPs) have strong cytotoxicity via inhibition of protein prenylation in the mevalonate pathway, and also demonstrate direct cytostatic and proapoptotic effects on prostate cancer cells. We confirmed the usefulness of a co-culture system comprised of prostatic LNCaP cells, ST2 cells (mouse-derived osteoblasts) and MLC-6 cells (mouse-derived osteoclasts) in vitro. N-BPs (pamidronate and zoledronic acid) inhibited both androgen receptor transactivation and tumor cell proliferation by suppressing the activities of both osteoclasts and osteoblasts with low-dose exposure. This indirect inhibition of prostate cancer cells via bone cells could be beneficial in treating prostate cancer patients with bone metastases.

Some of the rare earth elements such as Sc are believed to be non-toxic and, at present, are widely utilized for the replacement of toxic heavy metals in technological applications, but they are not entirely free of toxicity, with hidden potential health risks. In this animal experiment, we report the urinary scandium (Sc) excretion rate and nephrotoxiciy in male Wistar rats. For this purpose, the rats were given a single dose of a solution of scandium chloride by intraperitoneal injection. The Sc excretion (U-Sc) was determined in 24-h urine samples by inductively coupled plasma-argon emission spectrometry along with the Sc nephrotoxicity, urine volume (UV), creatinine (Crt), beta-2-microglobulin (beta2-MG) and N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAG). A dose-dependent Sc excretion of 0.0063% (r = 0.97) via 24-h urine was confirmed. The administration of Sc induced a significant decrease of UV and Crt and a significant increase of NAG and beta2-MG. These results suggest that U-Sc can be a useful tool for monitoring Sc exposure. The formation of Sc colloidal conjugates that deposit in glomeruli may be the cause of a reduction of the glomerular filtration rate. We propose that the analytical method and results described in this study will be of great importance for future toxicological studies on Sc exposure.

Shredded cabbage was packaged in four types of non-perforated and perforated OPP films with initial 10% CO2. In the perforated OPP film with a O2 permeability of 25,000 mL/m2 per day/atm, CO2 remained at about 10%, O2 decreased to 13%, and the shreds showed the best organoleptic quality after 4 days of storage at 10 °C. The bacteria isolated from the shredded cabbage in the perforated MA package were predominantly Gram-negative rod-forms including Enterobacteriaceae and phytopathogenic bacteria, while only lactic acid bacteria (Leuconostoc citreum) was isolated as Gram-positive bacteria. For biological control of the pathogens, two lactic acid bacteria strains (Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides and Pediococcus acidilactici) were selected from bacteriocinogenic 6 strains, based on the growth in culture broth under 5% to 20% CO2 atmospheres. Shredded cabbage was inoculated with these two bacteriocin-producing strains, packaged in 10% CO2 perforated MA packaging, and stored at 10 °C. The growth of coliforms and psychotrophic aerobic bacteria was reduced due to antagonistic effect of lactic acid bacteria and the quality of shreds was not affected detrimentally by the strains. These results indicate that the combination of added bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria and 10% CO2 perforated MAP was useful in biopreservation of shredded cabbage.

The Huang-Minlon reduction of 7α-hydroxymethylbicycl4o[3.3.1]- nonan-3-one (1) gave 7β-methylbicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-3 β-ol (2), a product formed as a result of the transannular 1,6-hydride shift enforced by relief of the stenc constraint in the system. Another example of the intramolecular hydride transfer on the same basis was observed in the deketalization of 9,9-disubstituted 7,7-ethylenedioxybicyclo[3.3.1 ]- nonan-3 β-ol (13 and 18) resulting in the formation of 7 β-(2-hydroxyethoxy) bicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-3-one (15 and 20).

1)一般に穀類(地上)澱粉粒の方炉地下澱粉粒よりも酵素により分解されやすいといえるが,地上澱粉にも,バナナ,高アミローストウモロコシ,ギンナンの澱粉粒のようにパンクレアチンで分解されにくい例外があり,地下澱粉にもサトイモの澱粉粒のように分解されやすい例外のあることがわかった. 2)マメ澱粉粒のin vitroでの分解性は,さつきみどり菜豆澱粉粒が比較的高い分解性を示したが,その他のマメ澱粉粒は高い分解性を示さなかった.また,分解後残った澱粉粒のSEM観察の結果,マメ類の澱粉粒はトウモロコシ澱粉粒のように穴があいてこわれる様子を示さなかったが,トウモロコシの場合と同様,粒内部の層状構造が認められた. 3)マメ類の澱粉含量は,大豆で1%前後,落花生で5%前後,その他のマメ類は30～45%前後であった. 4)発芽前および発芽7日目の子葉切片のSEM観察の結果,7日間の発芽により細胞中で澱粉粒のつまり方がいく分少なくなり,表面に変化が認められたが,トウモロコシの発芽の時にみられるような穴や層は,小豆および落花生を除いてみられなかった.