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Travel-related attitudes are believed to affect the connections between the built environment and travel behaviour. Previous studies found supporting evidence for the residential self-selection hypothesis which suggests that the impact of the built environment on travel behaviour could be overestimated when attitudes are not accounted for. However, this hypothesis is under scrutiny as the reverse causality hypothesis, which implies a reverse direction of influence from the built environment towards attitudes, is receiving increased attention in recent research. This study tests both directions of influence by means of cross-sectional and longitudinal structural equation models. GPS tracking is used to assess changes in travel behaviour in terms of car kilometres travelled. The outcomes show stronger reverse causality effects than residential self-selection effects and that land-use policies significantly reduce car kilometres travelled. Moreover, the longitudinal models show that the built environment characteristics provide a better explanation for changes in car kilometres travelled than the travel-related attitudes. This contradicts the cross-sectional analysis where associations between car kilometres travelled and travel-related attitudes were stronger. This highlights the need for more longitudinal studies in this field.

The increasing penetration of online shopping will have major effects on physical stores. And the question is: In which areas will consumers replace most physical shopping with online shopping? Two apparently competing hypotheses were tested: the diffusion of innovation hypothesis, suggesting openness to new technologies; and the efficiency hypothesis, suggesting accessibility gains. Whether the innovation hypothesis has lost its importance in favor of the efficiency hypothesis was also questioned. The study area was a polycentric urban area in the Netherlands. We distinguished between books, clothes, and groceries. It was assumed that shoppers’ decisions to buy a particular good online or not, and the share of online shopping relative to in-store shopping for this good, were basically driven either by shoppers’ willingness to adopt the new technology of e-shopping or by shoppers’ accessibility to shops. Support was found for both hypotheses, although the impact of shopping seemed limited and varied between different types of goods. In the end, e-shopping behavior remains primarily shaped by households who are open to new technologies, and to a limited extent by efficiency considerations.

As people require time to adjust their travel behaviour to changes in residential location and transport infrastructure, there is a need for long-term empirical studies quantifying the relationships between locations, individuals and travel behaviour. Such empirical evidence is critical for assessing previous and candidate future land use-transport policies. Existing research however, has mostly investigated travel behaviour during relatively short time periods and for a single transport mode. This paper examines the development of travel behaviour and its socio-demographic and location determinants, using Dutch National Travel Survey data from 1980 to 2010 among other sources, for the Randstad, the Netherlands. A pseudo panel analysis is conducted to investigate the effect of various indicators on average daily distance travelled by train, car and bicycle over three decades. Econometric models including pooled ordinary least squares, fixed and random effects and a hybrid model were tested to identify the best fit. The results indicate that average daily distance travelled rose until the mid-1990s before witnessing a decrease till 2010. Interestingly, half of the Randstad inhabitants have been travelling ≤26 km per day over the past thirty years. Furthermore, as people grow older, they increasingly travel more by train and bicycle. Finally, a rise in suburban inhabitants decreases the average distance travelled by train and increases that of bicycle, while a rise in rural inhabitants encourages higher distances travelled by car.

The importance of attitudes in the relationship between travel behaviour (TB) and the built environment (BE) has been the subject of debate in the literature for about two decades. In line with the Theory of Planned Behaviour, attitudes – which affect behaviour – are generally assumed to be constant. However, it is plausible that attitudes can change, both directly, or indirectly, through the impact of the built environment on travel behaviour, a process which is referred to as reverse causality (RC). Based on literature from social psychology, this paper provides a conceptual model for the explanation of attitude changes. It also reviews the literature in the area of BE and TB concluding that two explanations dominate: a change in attitudes due to new experiences which can be underpinned by learning theories, and a change in attitudes due to mismatches between attitudes and behaviour which can be explained by cognitive dissonance theories. The literature also suggests a few additional explanations, while we also suggest explanations not provided in travel behaviour literature. Finally, we present an agenda for future research.

In this paper we propose the concept of ‘substitutability’, which we define as the extent to which the preferred travel alternative can be substituted by other initially less preferred alternatives. This is particularly of interest when the preferred alternative is no longer available, e.g. due to labour strikes, weather conditions, power failures, etc. Travel alternatives in this context can comprise of activities, modes, time of day, and routes. We argue that substitutability is a promising new concept, which is relevant for travel behaviour research. In particular, substitutability is relevant from an accessibility perspective, as well as from the perspective of ‘freedom of choice’. In this paper we conceptualise the concept of substitutability, present a mathematical expression for it and discuss its relationships with other related concepts in the travel behaviour research field, such as the freedom of choice, accessibility, and robustness/reliability. We illustrate the concept of substitutability using a case study, where we look at the extent to which airports can be substituted by other airports, and by high-speed railway stations, conditional on a given destination, namely the cities of Paris, London and Frankfurt. Finally, we present a research agenda.

City and regional governments in North America and the Netherlands are implementing transit-oriented development (TOD) policies to provide residents with accessible and compact communities that are socially, environmentally, and economically sustainable. Through 13 in-depth semi-structured interviews with planners and transportation professionals in the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands, this study attempts to identify the factors that practitioners in these regions determine to be essential for the post-development success of TOD. Our analysis reveals that seven key elements contribute to the success of TOD which are approached differently by planners in the three regions. The study concludes by suggesting ways in which professionals could integrate land use and transportation projects based on planning for flexibility, accessibility, and collaboration.

Improvements in geographical information systems, the wider availability of high-resolution digital data and more sophisticated econometric techniques have all contributed to increasing academic interest and activity in long-term impacts of transport infrastructure networks (TINs) on land use (LU). This paper provides a systematic review of recent empirical evidence from the USA, Europe and East Asia, classified regarding the type of transport infrastructure (road or rail), LU indicator (land cover, population or employment density, development type) and outcome (significance, relationship’s direction) as well as influential exogenous factors. Proximity to the rail network is generally associated with population growth (particularly soon after the development of railway infrastructure), conversion to residential uses and the development of higher residential densities. Meanwhile, proximity to the road network is frequently associated with increases in employment densities as well as the conversion...

Travel-related attitudes and dissonance between attitudes and the characteristics of the residential built environment are believed to play an important role in the effectiveness of land use policies that aim to influence travel behaviour. To date, research on the nature and directions of causality of the links between these variables has been hindered by the lack of longitudinal approaches. This paper takes such an approach by exploring how people across different population groups adjust their residential environments and attitudes over time. Two latent class transition models are used to segment a population into consonant and dissonant classes to reveal differences in their adjustment process. Interactions between (1) the distance to railway stations and travel-mode-related attitudes and (2) the distance to shopping centres and the importance of satisfaction with these distances are modelled. The models reveal mixed patterns in consonant and dissonant classes at different distances from these destinations. These patterns remain relatively stable over time. People in more dissonant classes generally do not have a higher probability of switching to more consonant classes. People adjust their built environments as well as their attitudes over time and these processes differ between classes. Implications for policies are discussed.

Due to the increasing use of bicycles as an access and egress mode for train travel in the Netherlands, bicycle parking facilities at many inner city railway stations are having trouble accommodating parking demand while scare space near train platforms precludes the expansion of such facilities. A potential solution for this problem is to offer paid, high-quality parking facilities close to the train platforms and free but lower-quality parking further away. Since free parking is currently also offered close to the platforms, the question arises of how the proposed solution would affect cycling as an access and egress mode for train travel. To answer this question, the bicycle parking preferences of train travellers were examined in this paper by reporting the results of a stated choice experiment (n = 866) conducted in Delft. In this experiment, respondents chose between paid and free parking alternatives, that varied in costs, walking time to platform and the type of surveillance. To explore the effects of paid bicycle parking on the demand for bicycle parking, two base alternatives were added to each choice set, that is ‘other mode’ and ‘use another station’. Based on the observed choices in this experiment, a four-class Latent Class Model (LCM) was estimated that provides insight in the heterogeneity of the bicycle parking preferences of train travellers. The classes are labelled as ‘free facility lovers’, ‘cost sensitive cyclists’, ‘time sensitive cyclists’, and ‘paid facility lovers’. The estimated model was used to predict choice behaviour under various implementations of the new pricing policy. The results indicate that only a small proportion of the train travellers will stop cycling to and from the station. Of these, the vast majority would rather walk and a fair share would use public transport. Only a very small number would travel to the station by car. The results suggest that paid bicycle parking is a feasible solution by which to distribute scarce parking capacity at major railway stations.

This paper explores the extent to which people identify an acceptable travel time for each trip they want to make and investigates the primary characteristics of this behavioural threshold. We assume that an acceptable travel time is defined through utilitarian processes that are related to cognitive and affective evaluations of travel that develop throughout a person’s lifetime. We apply a mixed methods approach to explore our hypothesis, based on semi-structured in-depth interviews with a stratified, according to commuting mode, random sample of 20 individuals living in Berkeley, CA. Our results support the validity of the acceptable travel time concept and offer (a) initial evidence on its variation to the travel mode and sociodemographic characteristics and (b) insights into people’s perceptions, attitudes, feelings and experiences about their travel. Thus, our results can contribute to a better understanding of individuals’ travel decisions and valuation of travel time and can inform time–space and accessibility research.

To date, most empirical studies have applied cross-sectional designs to investigate the relationship between the built environment (BE) and travel behaviour (TB). Since these studies cannot identify causal influence, the use of designs that provide data on multiple moments in time seems necessary. This article classifies these designs and describes how they can be applied to identify causality in this relationship. We recommend the use of natural experiments to assess the impact of changes in land use/infrastructure and prospective longitudinal designs to assess the impact of residential or job moves. In addition, the role of the BE can be explored by assessing the impact of (1) deliberate TB change experiments and (2) changes in household circumstances across different spatial contexts over time. The use of randomised experimental designs is recommended for the former and prospective longitudinal designs for the latter. The article concludes with an outlook on future research.

Electric bicycles have rapidly become more common in the Netherlands. This paper analyzes the effect of this relatively new form of transportation on modal choice by asking which modes electric bicycles are replacing. Using a revealed preference approach, researchers surveyed users from all over the country and collected demographic information, details about their electric bicycles, usage patterns, and a one-day travel diary. Results showed that electric bicycles were primarily owned by those older than age 55, with recreation, shopping, and commuting as common uses. Regarding modal switch, 40% of electric bicycle trips would have been made in an automobile if an electric bicycle had not been available. This finding suggests that as people age and experience increasing difficulty riding a traditional bicycle, the electric bicycle offers an opportunity for them to stay on the bike paths instead of switching to automobiles.

When developing radical innovations, firms often form collaborative relationships with external organizations to have access to additional resources. Therefore, alliance formation is influential in innovation and plays a key role in industrial change. However, most studies have not distinguished between individual alliances and instead aggregated collaborations when analysing firm external R&D efforts. Our research sought to explore manufacturer use of alliances to acquire expertise in key knowledge areas as they developed and commercialized electric vehicles. Alliances from 24 manufacturers were analysed according to type (explorative or exploitative), key knowledge area, and firm type (incumbent or start-up). The results show distinct alliance formation patterns in different key knowledge areas. Heterogeneity of alliance formation in key knowledge areas indicates that developing a radical innovation is not as simple as acquiring new expertise. Rather it is a complex process where firms seek to develop their own knowledge base and use the expertise of other companies. This likely stems from a desire to develop technologies connected to core business models. Analysing alliance formation according to key knowledge area provides a rich account of how firms approach knowledge acquisition as they develop radical innovations during a time of industrial uncertainty.

In this paper, we study the strategies of the most relevant stakeholders with regard to the development and commercialization of electric vehicles (EVs) and their recharging infrastructure. Building on the perspective of socio-technical transitions, we relate the strategies of stakeholders to their current and future interests, as well as to their expectations with regard to EVs. Our analysis is based on a series of 38 semi-structured interviews with representatives of a variety of stakeholders in the Netherlands. EVs pose both opportunities and threats to various stakeholders. They therefore participate in the development of the emerging EV system, primarily in order to learn about the potential positive and negative impacts of these systems on their interests and, ultimately, to be able to grasp the opportunities and mitigate the threats. In other words, the expectations, interests, and resulting strategies of stakeholders relate to and depend upon the specific configuration of the emerging socio-technical system for electric mobility. We identify six potential conflicts of interest: the division of tasks within a public recharging infrastructure; the allocation of charging spots; the ways in which charging behavior can be influenced; the role of fast-charging, technical standards for charging equipment; and supportive policies for full-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In general, the stakeholders do not seem overly concerned about either short-term returns on investments or long-term negative impacts. In this regard, the early phase of the transition can be understood as a relatively carefree phase. In order to continue the development of the emerging EV system and to keep it on the right track, however, for the foreseeable future, supportive policies will be necessary in order to provide a stable and reliable basis for further market expansion.

Electric vehicles represent an innovation with the potential to lower greenhouse gas emissions and help mitigate the causes of climate change. However, externalities including the appropriability of knowledge and pollution abatement result in societal/economic benefits that are not incorporated in electric vehicle prices. In order to address resulting market failures, governments have employed a number of policies. We seek to determine the relationship of one such policy instrument (consumer financial incentives) to electric vehicle adoption. Based on existing literature, we identified several additional socio-economic factors that are expected to be influential in determining electric vehicle adoption rates. Using multiple linear regression analysis, we examined the relationship between those variables and 30 national electric vehicle market shares for the year 2012. The model found financial incentives, charging infrastructure, and local presence of production facilities to be significant and positively correlated to a country's electric vehicle market share. Results suggest that of those factors, charging infrastructure was most strongly related to electric vehicle adoption. However, descriptive analysis suggests that neither financial incentives nor charging infrastructure ensure high electric vehicle adoption rates.

So far, the growing body of research on polycentric urban structures has paid relatively little attention to spatial patterns of service consumption. There have been suggestions that the conventional central place model can no longer adequately describe and explain the patterns in contemporary polycentric urban areas and regions, and that it should be replaced by a new ‘network’ model. Though the network model is still in need of elaboration, several of its key notions are recognisable in this case study on cinema-going in the city-region of Rotterdam. However, this study also makes clear that the current ‘prototype’ of the network model needs to be enhanced by attention to the broad issue why people choose to visit certain service venues, including considerations regarding spatial factors but non-spatial factors like qualities of service venues, before it can serve as a valid model for future study.

In this paper, we present the case that traditional transport appraisal methods do not sufficiently capture the social dimensions of mobility and accessibility. However, understanding this is highly relevant for policymakers to understand the impacts of their transport decisions. These dimensions include the distribution of mobility and accessibility levels over particular areas or for specific population groups, as well as how this may affect various social outcomes, including their levels of participation, social inclusion and community cohesion. In response, we propose a method to assess the socially relevant accessibility impacts (SRAIs) of policies in some of these key dimensions. The method combines the use of underlying ethics principles, more specifically the theories of egalitarianism and sufficientarianism, in combination with accessibility-based analysis and the Lorenz curve and Gini index. We then demonstrate the method in a case study example. Our suggestion is that policymakers can use these ethical perspectives to determine the equity of their policies decisions and to set minimum standards for local transport delivery. This will help them to become more confident in the development and adoption of new decision frameworks that promote accessibility over mobility and which also disaggregate the costs and benefits of transport policies over particular areas or for specific under-served population groups.

The automobile industry is in a remarkable state as not one, but multiple alternative fuel powertrain technologies are challenging the gasoline/diesel fueled internal combustion engine (ICE). This indicates a high level of uncertainty and suggests that the automobile industry might be transitioning past the ICE powertrain as the dominant design. Our research analyzed the technological diversity of alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) from 1991 to 2011. We collected an unique database of 884 AFVs from the 15 largest auto manufacturers. This data was analyzed on a firm, technological, and industrial level. Results showed an increase in technological diversity over the study period. Although electric vehicles are the technology du jour, auto manufacturers are continuing to develop a variety of AFVs. This indicates that incumbent firms do not know if/which powertrain design will emerge as the dominant technology. Indeed, high heterogeneity in vehicle demand through influences such as government policies could lead to several different types of AFVs competing in distinct markets. In addition to analyzing industrial dynamics in the automobile industry, we also provided policy recommendations for how governments can support the transition toward more sustainable automobile transportation.

Clearly, the built environment has certain effects on the travel behavior of individuals and households, but Dutch research findings indicate that this relationship is quite complex. Although the argumentation behind these spatial concepts sounds plausible, other mechanisms may complicate the relationship between travel behavior and the built environment. Rather than the built environment having a straightforward influence on trip frequencies, travel distances and mode choices, we may be dealing with endogenous relationships, in which individuals take into account other preferences, other activities and travel, other people, and other locations. The goal of this study is to review primarily Dutch empirical work that goes beyond direct associations and address these feedback effects in the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. It is argued that second order effects, such as rebound effects and residential self-selection are largely responsible for this.

This study analyzes the industrial dynamics of electric vehicles using product life cycle and eco-innovation concepts. A unique database of approximately 450 electric vehicle prototype and production models from 1991 to 2011 was collected and analyzed. This research largely focused on three factors that become fluid during a transitional era of ferment (the technology, the set of firms and the target market). Results show that since 2004, the number of companies producing electric vehicle (EV) models has substantially increased with startup firms comprising a majority of that growth. The variety of battery types used in EV models has expanded, largely through lithium-ion chemistries. Large incumbents and startup firms have targeted different consumer markets with their EV models. Startup firms developed EV models for niche markets (sports cars and low speed vehicles) while large incumbents generally developed EV models that are more in line with current customer demands.

Mode alternation in the Netherlands was compared, and data from a longitudinal survey were compared with a single-moment survey that focused on bicycle commuting to evaluate its reliability. Travel data are usually collected at a single moment in time. The use of single-moment survey data to investigate variable behavior raises questions about the reliability of such data. Repeated measures, resulting in longitudinal data, may be the solution because in that case individuals would have to report only 1 day at a time, a relatively easy task. Collection of longitudinal data, however, is more expensive and takes more time. Analyses showed that mode alternation occurred frequently, especially for car and bicycle commuters. Single-moment surveys appeared to be unable to measure this accurately. Many respondents inaccurately reported being part-time cyclists although they always cycled to work or, conversely, claimed to be full-time cyclists although they varied modes. Moreover, many did not accurately report cycling frequency in a single-moment survey. However, it is difficult to determine the characteristics that predict the probability of an accurate report. In addition, the degree of accuracy is not readily linked to individual characteristics. Thus, it appears that the error in single-moment surveys cannot be easily corrected. Even repetitive behavior is subject to much variation, so surveys should include specific questions that would increase insight into this phenomenon and transport models should include mode variation. For this innovation in transport models to occur, longitudinal data must be collected and analyzed.

To reduce the environmental burden of urban road traffic, researchers and policy-makers have focused on reducing car use in urban areas, and improving public transport. Current expectations with respect to electric cars are high, not only for environmental reasons, but also because of the expected depletion of fossil fuels. Using a conceptual model for environmental burden caused by cars and a categorization of policy instruments and their effects, this paper discusses policies to encourage the adoption of electric cars. The paper also discusses the implications of the successful introduction of electric cars for conventional urban transport policies. The paper concludes that electric vehicles could bring substantial benefits to the environment and energy consumption, but the long-term environmental benefits largely depend on the size of potential rebound effects, the life-cycle effects with respect to energy, differences between electric cars and their competitors in “well-to-wheel” consumption, and—more...

This paper analyses the influence of commuters' attitudes toward the benefits of travel by bicycle (e.g. convenience, low cost, health benefits) on the mode choice decision for commutes to work. We assume that when the commute journey intensifies, either in terms of distance or frequency, attitudes toward cycling become more positive. Factor analysis reveals three underlying attitudinal factors toward cycling to work: awareness, direct trip-based benefits and safety. The decision to cycle is influenced by the factor "direct trip-based benefit" at all distances, whereas the "awareness" is influential only over long distances. The decision to cycle every day is again affected by the "direct benefit" factor. The factors "safety" and "awareness" are important over shorter distances. Having a cycling habit increases the likelihood of cycling and a higher frequency of cycling. The perceived opinion of others only affects the mode choice over short distances suggesting indicates mode choice on longer commutes is based on one's own attitudes. These findings indicate that attitudes and other psychological factors have a relatively strong impact on the choice to commute by bicycle.

This paper, using longitudinal data for 633 part-time bicycle commuters, investigates day-to-day decisions to commute by bicycle. Previous research has investigated mode choice, travel destination, and other travel choices for 1 day only. However, it cannot be assumed that travel choices do not vary from day to day and that most individuals travel by the same transportation mode every day. Day-to-day decisions to cycle are affected by work characteristics, commute journey characteristics, and weather conditions. More specifically, workers wearing business attire, needing to transport goods, needing a car during office hours, having longer commute distances, commuting in the dark, and facing a higher wind speed or a more or longer duration of rain are less likely to commute by bicycle. Positive effects were found for temperature and the duration of sunshine. The results show that factors that can differ on a daily basis largely influence bicycle mode choice from day to day. The results show that two groups of part-time cyclists exist: occasional cyclists and frequent cyclists. Whereas the decisions of occasional cyclists to commute by bicycle are more affected by positive weather conditions, frequent cyclists are discouraged from cycling by more practical barriers, including wind speed and the need to be at multiple locations.

Commuting by bicycle has advantages over other modes of transport, both for the commuter and for society. Although cycling is an option for many commuters, a considerable number of them choose to use other forms of transport. In order to underpin policies that promote commuting by bicycle, this paper investigates the determinants for commuting to work. As many bicycle commuters do not cycle every day, we also examine people’s daily choices, in terms of frequency. We conducted a survey of the current literature in order to identify the determinants for commuting by bicycle. We found many determinants, not all of which are addressed by conventional mode choice studies and models. This suggests that predicting and influencing bicycle use needs to be grounded in other kinds of knowledge than those currently available for motorized forms of transport.

In the past few decades, travel patterns have become more complex and policy makers demand more detailed information. As a result, conventional data collection methods seem no longer adequate to satisfy all data needs. Travel researchers around the world are currently experimenting with different Global Positioning System (GPS)-based data collection methods. An overview of the literature shows the potential of these methods, especially when algorithms that include spatial data are used to derive trip characteristics from the GPS logs. This article presents an innovative method that combines GPS logs, Geographic Information System (GIS) technology and an interactive web-based validation application. In particular, this approach concentrates on the issue of deriving and validating trip purposes and travel modes, as well as allowing for reliable multi-day data collection. In 2007, this method was used in practice in a large-scale study conducted in the Netherlands. In total, 1104 respondents successfully participated in the one-week survey. The project demonstrated that GPS-based methods now provide reliable multi-day data. In comparison with data from the Dutch Travel Survey, travel mode and trip purpose shares were almost equal while more trips per tour were recorded, which indicates the ability of collecting trips that are missed by paper diary methods.

Empirical studies that include travel‐related attitudes to identify the role of residential self‐selection in the relationship between the built environment and travel behaviour display a wide variety in the type of attitudes that they include, the relationships between the variables that they analyse and the ways they measure attitude. This paper discusses what theories on attitudes and behaviour can contribute to examining the role of self‐selection and reviews those studies on residential self‐selection and travel behaviour that explicitly include attitudes. Although several studies state that residential self‐selection is accounted for by the inclusion of attitudes, the complexity of the inclusion and the measurement of attitudes often leads to an underestimation of the role of residential self‐selection. Because of their relevance to the reliability of results, the options for measuring travel‐related attitudes are also discussed. When attitudes are included in questionnaires, it is essentia...

Urban form is often assumed to influence travel distance. However, as this is no travel choice in itself, but the consequence of other decisions, this paper tests, consistent with the activity-based approach, a causal model that does not relate urban form directly with daily travel distance, but indirectly through a series of decisions. A structural equation model was developed with urban form measures for both the residential and the work environment. The model demonstrates that indirect effects can steer a total effect in another direction, indicating that the apparent effects of one variable on another can be the trade-off of opposite effects. Effects from residential density suggest that people in a dense residential environment travel a little less, although this effect is partly cancelled out by extra activities. Workplace density/mix increases total daily distances, but decreases distances by car.

This paper analyses whether the decision to commute by car is influenced by built environment characteristics of residential neighbourhoods and, more especially, of work locations, taking into account interdependencies between household partners. It shows that the residential environment only affects car use among single-earners. Conversely, for all commuters, but in particular for dual-earners, characteristics of the work location affect whether they commute by car. Even in dual-earner households with two cars, work environment plays a role. We found that in cases of dual-earners with only one car, the partners with the longest commuting distances and the lowest density work locations are most likely to commute by car. Moreover, in households with young children, men are more inclined to leave the car at home. Other features relating to work also affect car commuting, including work flexibility and, especially, possession of a company car. We conclude that future policies aimed at reducing car use should place greater focus on work factors. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

This chapter contributes to the improvement of GPS-based travel surveying by introducing a combined method of GPS, GIS and web-based user interaction, which has been applied in large- scale fieldwork in the netherlands. With over 1000 participants, as far as we know, this is the first time that a GPS-based method that measures travel mode choice as well as the location and type of destinations that are visited has been used on such a large scale. The chapter focuses in particular on the identification of travel modes and destinations, which is still an under-researched issue. Our approach concentrates on the issue of deriving and validating the purpose of trip destinations and travel modes, while also allowing reliable multi-day data collection. The method consists of an interpretation process and a validation process. The interpretation process uses spatial data (e.g. railways, shops) and characteristics of the respondents (e.g. home address, possession of cars) to interpret data from the logs. The travel behaviour data that result from this interpretation round can be adjusted and added to by the respondents in a validation application. The link between both processes is interactive; when new individual characteristics (e.g. the address of a friend’s house) are entered by the respondents, these characteristics will be used for further interpretation of the data. The remainder of this chapter is structured as follows. The following section gives an overview of the advantages and drawbacks of current GPS-based data collection methods that are suitable for measuring choice of travel mode and/or trip destinations. The subsequent section describes the GPS-based method that we developed and in section four the value of our method is evaluated by presenting the results of the fieldwork we recently undertook. The results are compared with results from an internet survey that was carried out at an earlier date and also with the Dutch Travel Survey (DTS) that uses paper diaries. The chapter ends with conclusions on the use of GPS-based methods for the collection of travel behaviour data and a discussion of future possibilities., Research in Urbanism Series, Vol. 1 (2008): Urbanism on Track: Application of tracking technologies in urbanism

In this paper we describe commuting trends in the Netherlands in the past decade and examine the influence of urban form and travel accessibility on commuting journeys over time on the basis of data from the Dutch National Travel Survey. Exploratory analysis is performed to identify changes in commuting participation, departure time, commuting time, commuting distance and the modal split. Regression analysis and choice models are used to examine the influence of the built environment on commuting parameters over time. The results indicate that urban form has consistently influenced the parameters of commuting journey in the Netherlands in the last 10 years. However, the trend of the influence is unique for each commuting model. Some influences have become less significant in the last decade and some have become stronger.

We investigated whether the use of parks and other green recreational facilities is influenced by the amount of green space around a dwelling and in the immediate neighbourhood. We paid particular attention to testing the compensation hypothesis, which states that people with less green space in their own residential environment are more likely to visit parks or nature reserves. The frequency of visits to green amenities was analyzed in relation to detailed spatial data based on sociodemographic variables. The findings indicated that, although people tend to make more use of green space if it is available in the vicinity, a brown (more urban) residential environment does not result in compensation behaviour. An explanation for this may be self-selection in the residential-choice process. It is conceivable, however, that some of the people who do not live in a green neighbourhood but would prefer to do so will move to a more suburban or rural environment.

Assumptions about the effects of various land-use characteristics on travel patterns have found their way into diverse concepts of planning and design, such as the compact city and neighbourhood-design principles. In general, these concepts aim at reducing travel distances and reducing car-travel speed, as it is assumed that as travel distances are shorter, individuals will travel less, and the relative competitive position of slower modes is increased. Although some literature supports the link between land use and travel behaviour, for the greater part limited effects have been concluded, whereas in others it has been concluded that there is virtually no effect. We argue that the effects fall short of the expectations advocated by the land-use concepts, because of shortcomings behind assumptions concerning the relationships between land use and travel behaviour. We argue that utility-based and activity-based theories add some extra insights. Various behavioural responses in terms of travel-time changes are possible, depending on whether travel time is minimised, benefits maximised, or activity patterns optimised. It is concluded that the contribution of compact urban designs to reduction on travel may not be as straightforward as is suggested by their advocates. In any case, a simplified distance-oriented and trip-oriented approach is unable to examine complex behaviour, and a broader framework of space and time is needed.

In this paper, we define measures of urban diversity, density and segregation using newdata and software systems based on GIS. These allow us to visualise the meaning of themultifunctional city. We begin with a discussion of how cities have become moresegregated in their land uses and activities during the last 200 years and how the currentfocus is on reversing this trend through limiting urban sprawl and bringing new lifeback to the inner and central city. We define various indices which show how diversityand density manifest themselves spatially. We argue that multifunctionalism is a relativeconcept, dependent upon the spatial and temporal scale that we use to think about themixing and concentration of urban land uses. We present three examples using spatiallysmoothed indicators of diversity: for a world city ? London, for a highly controlledpolycentric urban region ? Randstad Holland, and for a much more diffusely populatedsemi-urban region ? Venice-Padua-Teviso. We conclude by illustrating that urbandiversity varies as people engage in different activities associated with different landuses throughout the day, as well as through the vertical, third dimension of the city. Thisimpresses the point that we need to understand multifunctional cities in all theirdimensions of space and time.

The assumption that travel demand is influenced by land use has long been applied in Dutch spatial planning policy. The aim of the present analysis is to explore how far this policy has succeeded in bringing about a compact and mixed spatial structure. Hence, a detailed analysis of the variation and development in the dispersal of urban activities, mix of uses, density, and diversity in urban areas between 1990 and 1996 is provided. It appears that although urban areas are leveling out on the one hand, they are undergoing a process of separation on the other. Although most of the building in the Randstad (the densely populated western part of the Netherlands) is taking place inside the designated urban regions, it is not producing compact monocentric towns; the urban areas are converging more and more, the metropolitan centers are losing their importance, and subcenters and concentrations of services are springing up on the edges of the urban regions. These phenomena confirm the emergence of complex, polycentric urban areas. Suburban sprawl is increasing rapidly in the intermediate zone outside the Randstad, where low-density residential areas, monoenvironments, and business estates are expanding. This region appears to have become the suburban search space for the Randstad. These dual trends will increase the distance between locations and make destinations less easily accessible by bicycle and public transport. Hence, neither the polycentric development inside the Randstad nor the suburban developments outside the Randstad will contribute to the reduction of car use.

Increasing the number of people cycling to work brings a number of benefits: it can lead to reductions in air pollution and traffic jams, and increases people’s physical activity levels. We investigated the extent to which work-related factors influence (1) whether an individual decides to cycle to work, and (2) whether an individual cycles to work every day. It is anticipated that the office culture and colleagues’ and employers’ attitudes would significantly influence both decisions. These factors are expected to impact the provision of cycling facilities and financial compensation schemes in the workplace. We conducted an Internet survey in 4 Dutch municipalities, gathering data from over 4,000 respondents. The results suggest that the following factors increase the likelihood of being a commuter cyclist: having a positive attitude towards cycling; colleagues’ expectations that an individual will cycle to work; the presence of bicycle storage inside; having access to clothes changing facilities; and needing a bicycle during office hours. The presence of facilities for other transport modes, an increase in the commute distance, and the need to transport goods, in turn, reduces the chance that an individual will cycle. Cycling frequency is negatively affected, meanwhile, by an increase in commute distance, a free public transport pass or car parking provided by the employer. These results indicate that an individual’s working situation affects the commuting cycling behaviour. The findings also indicate that (partly) different variables influence an individual’s decision to cycle to work, and their decision to cycle every day.

Is it possible to shorten an 80-item diagnostic writing ability test without a substantial loss in reliability and validity, and without a substantial reduction in the quality of the advices based on the scores of this test? The starting point of this psychometric-analytical study is a practical case: a formative writing ability test which has to be completed by accountants before they are allowed to follow an e-learning training programme for improving the quality of writing management letters. Based on the results of this diagnostic test, the accountants get specific advices which are tuned to their specific writing abilities and shortcomings: in the e-learning they have to pay special attention to certain problems in the writing of management letters, while others problems may be skipped. The time to complete this diagnostic test (on average 3 hours) is a main problem in view of the limited time of the participants and the duration of the whole e-learning training programme (8 hours).

Efficient use of land is a major goal in urban planning strategies. In densely populated regions, where land available for urban expansion has become scarce, urbanisation policies promote compact urban development along with good spatial quality. National policy in the Netherlands seeks to reduce the consumption of urban land. This chapter describes and discusses the design, implementation and application of an instrument to monitor these strategic planning goals. It is based on current, generally available administrative and statistical data sets and on geo-information technology. The Urban Pattern, Density and Diversity (UPDD) Monitor makes it possible to translate the policy goals into indicators and to measure and visualise urban development for ex post policy evaluation. However, some problems with the interpretation of the indicators’ values could not be completely solved. Moreover, future policy changes will make periodic adjustment of the instrument inevitable.

Travel Behaviour is a challenging and original volume, adding to the growing literature focusing on understanding transportation systems. The book capitalises on actual scientific and applied developments in Europe, the importance of EC policies and the resultant trend in studying differences between North American and European research.

The impact of transport on the environment is a major issue of worldwide concern. This important new book presents state-of-the-art contributions on spatial and technological aspects of transport in relation to environmental degradation, together with analysis of sustainable transport policy.

This article describes a number of problems that the communication professional has to deal with, while analysing written business communication. Some of the problems have to do with analysing communication within training courses, others arise when analysing the communication and the flow of communication through an organization. The author presents a way to incorporate ALEXIS, a software package, into professional business communication. ALEXIS is an educational software package, designed to support staff teaching a writing course in a number of time consuming tasks, above all in supplying printed feedback on written assignments. ALEXIS has been used successfully in the writing curricula of Nijenrode, the Netherlands School of Business, and Twente University of Technology. Using ALEXIS helps to overcome some of the problems the communication professional has to deal with and tends to facilitate the process of analysing

The impact of transport on the environment is a major issue of worldwide concern. This important new book presents state-of-the-art contributions on spatial and technological aspects of transport in relation to environmental degradation, together with analysis of sustainable transport policy.

Travel Behaviour is a challenging and original volume, adding to the growing literature focusing on understanding transportation systems. The book capitalises on actual scientific and applied developments in Europe, the importance of EC policies and the resultant trend in studying differences between North American and European research.

The results of a project conducted to compare and evaluate a new activity diary design with two more-traditional diary formats are discussed. The project was conducted as part of a research program involving several research groups in the Netherlands. The design of a stage-based diary, a day-planner format, and a new format representing a combination of the stage-based and day-planner formats is reported. Some small-scale qualitative and quantitative analyses were carried out on the basis of a pilot survey. The three formats were evaluated on their trip-reporting rates, rounding of time, missing activities, and overlapping begin and end times. Respondents were asked about their experiences with reporting trips and activities and their overall impressions of the formats. The advantages and disadvantages of each alternative format are discussed, and some conclusions about design criteria are drawn.