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The management of marine resources is a complex process driven by the dynamics of the natural system and the influence of stakeholders including policy-makers. An integration of natural and social sciences research is required by policy-makers to better understand, and manage sustainably, natural changes and anthropogenic activities within particular marine systems. Given the uncertain development of activities in the marine environment, future scenarios assessments can be used to investigate whether marine policy measures are robust and sustainable. This paper develops an interdisciplinary framework, which incorporates future scenarios assessments, and identifies four main types of evaluation needed to integrate natural and social sciences research to support the integrated management of the marine environment: environmental policy and governance assessments; ecosystem services, indicators and valuation; modelling tools for management evaluations, and risk assessment and risk management. The importance of stakeholder engagement within each evaluation method is highlighted. The paper focuses on the transnational spatial marine management of the Dogger Bank, in the central North Sea, a site which is very important ecologically, economically and politically. Current management practices are reviewed, and research tools to support future management decisions are applied and discussed in relation to two main vectors of change affecting the Dogger Bank, namely commercial fisheries and offshore wind farm developments, and in relation to the need for nature conservation. The input of local knowledge through stakeholder engagement is highlighted as a necessary requirement to produce site-specific policy recommendations for the future management of the Dogger Bank. We present wider policy recommendations to integrate natural and social sciences in a global marine context.

The offshore wind power industry is relatively new but increasing globally, hence it is important that the whole life-cycle is managed. The construction–operation–decommissioning cycle is likely to take 20–30 years and whilst decommissioning may not be undertaken for many years, its management needs to be addressed in both current and future marine management regimes. This can be defined within a Drivers–Activities–Pressures–State Changes–Impacts (on human Welfare)–Responses framework. This paper considers the main decommissioning options – partial or complete removal of all components. A SWOT analysis shows environmental and economic benefits in partial as opposed to complete removal, especially if habitat created on the structures has conservation or commercial value. Benefits (and repercussions) are defined in terms of losses and gains of ecosystem services and societal benefits. The legal precedents and repercussions of both options are considered in terms of the 10-tenets of sustainable marine management. Finally a ‘renewables-to-reefs’ programme is proposed.

There is scarce existing information in the literature regarding the responses of any marine species, especially commercially valuable decapod crustaceans, to hypersalinity. Hypersaline discharges due to solute mining and desalination are increasing in temperate areas, hence the behavioural responses of the edible brown crab, Cancer pagurus, and the European lobster, Homarus gammarus, were studied in relation to a marine discharge of highly saline brine using a series of preference tests. Both species had a significant behavioural response to highly saline brine, being able to detect and avoid areas of hypersalinity once their particular threshold salinity was reached (salinity 50 for C. pagurus and salinity 45 for H. gammarus). The presence of shelters had no effect on this response and both species avoided hypersaline areas, even when shelters were provided there. If the salinity of commercial effluent into the marine environment exceeds the behavioural thresholds found here, it is likely that adults of these species will relocate to areas of more favourable salinity. In management terms it is advisable to ensure that any hypersaline discharges are limited to the lowest tolerance of all the economically valuable species in the area to avoid loss of revenue in fishery areas.

Worldwide demand for energy is growing and predicted to increase by up to three times by 2050. Renewable energy will play a vital role in meeting this demand whilst maintaining global climate change targets. Around the British Isles, development of wind farms has entered Round three, with large, high capacity wind parks being planned to enhance energy security and achieve 2020 renewable energy targets. Such developments place additional pressure on existing sea space and may result in conflicts with other marine activities and users. Co-location of certain activities, marine protected areas, aquaculture and commercial fishing in particular, has therefore been proposed as an option to ease demands on space. Using the UK guided by EU and regional policy, as a case study, following the criteria-based planning system, co-location is legally feasible. Crucially, co-location options will depend on site specific characteristics and site management plans. The biology, ecology and hydrology of the site as well as consideration of important commercial and economic factors will be determining factors of success. For marine protected areas compatibility with conservation objectives for the site will be fundamental. Where possible, it is suggested that activities suitable for co-location will develop in tandem with renewable energy projects. The importance of developing joint projects in this manner is particularly true for aquaculture projects to ensure tenure security and commercial viability. Adaptive management will be a basis for evolution of the concept and practice of co-location. Pilot projects and continued monitoring will be essential in shaping the future of co-location of activities. As the Marine Management Organisation continues the development of marine plans for the English inshore and offshore waters, a study into potential solutions for resolving sea use conflicts is timely. This paper therefore provides a concise overview of the current regulation affecting co-location of key marine activities within wind farm zones and provides suggestions on how co-location projects can be adopted and taken forward, using the UK as a case study.

This is a response to a commentary by Fowler et al on an earlier paper (Smyth et al., 2015). Fowler et al. recognises that the consolidation of information presented in our original paper will hopefully assist managers and the industry in preparing for the decommissioning phase of their operations. Our response notes that our paper was intended to provide general points in the debate rather than give a detailed recipe to the industry and regulators given the uncertainty of the prevailing governance conditions at the time when OWF decommissioning will take place. We agree with many of the points raised by Fowler et al. (this volume) and have made similar points elsewhere although the lack of space in the original article precluded us from giving all details. We acknowledge that our paper was written from a European perspective with US experience so it is good to see a response with an Australian perspective. There are further more detailed responses to particular points.

Changing salinity is a master factor in the distribution of both marine and estuarine species and is limiting to freshwater organisms; hence salinity is fundamental in modifying aquatic ecosystem assemblage structure and functioning. The effects of changing salinity on the ecology of different habitats is driven ultimately by the underlying physiology and tolerances of organisms and their ability to cope with salinity fluctuations on both long and short time scales. Estuarine species are often euryhaline, adapted to tolerate fluctuating salinity, whereas many marine species are stenohaline and limited by their narrow range of physiological tolerance. For estuarine species, lowered salinities may be a subsidy, i.e. benefiting the organisms by reducing competition, whereas for non-tolerant species they are a stressor. Salinities at the margins or outside the tolerance range of particular species will prevent their occurrence, change their behaviour, or limit reproduction and germination, reducing their fitness for survival in that environment. Salinity can act synergistically or antagonistically with other environmental stressors, producing a dynamic and changing environment. Anthropogenic activities and effluents can modify local salinity regimes and their effects depend on the assimilative capacity of both the area and the species. This chapter discusses such effects of changing salinity at the species, community, and ecosystem levels of biological organization. It also explores salinity change as an environmental perturbation in terms of various saline ecosystems worldwide, from ice melt/formation in polar regions through to man-made salt pans and desalination plants.