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The aim of this study was to analyze time-lagged heat stress (HS) effects during late gestation on genetic co(variance) components in dairy cattle across generations for production, female fertility, and health traits. The data set for production and female fertility traits considered 162,492 Holstein Friesian cows from calving years 2003 to 2012, kept in medium-sized family farms. The health data set included 69,986 cows from calving years 2008 to 2016, kept in participating large-scale co-operator herds. Production traits were milk yield (MKG), fat percentage (fat%), and somatic cell score (SCS) from the first official test-day in first lactation. Female fertility traits were the nonreturn rate after 56 d (NRR56) in heifers and the interval from calving to first insemination (ICFI) in first-parity cows. Health traits included clinical mastitis (MAST), digital dermatitis (DD), and endometritis (EM) in the early lactation period in first-parity cows. Meteorological data included temperature and humidity from public weather stations in closest herd distance. The HS indicator was the temperature-humidity index (THI) during dams' late gestation, also defined as in utero HS. For the genetic analyses of production, female fertility, and health traits in the offspring generation, a sire-maternal grandsire random regression model with Legendre polynomials of order 3 for the production and of order 2 for the fertility and health traits on prenatal THI, was applied. All statistical models additionally considered a random maternal effect. THI from late gestation (i.e., prenatal climate conditions), influenced genetic parameter estimates in the offspring generation. For MKG, heritabilities and additive genetic variances decreased in a wave-like pattern with increasing THI. Especially for THI >58, the decrease was very obvious with a minimal heritability of 0.08. For fat% and SCS, heritabilities increased slightly subjected to prenatal HS conditions at THI >67. The ICFI heritabilities differed marginally across THI [heritability (h2) = 0.02–0.04]. For NRR56, MAST, and DD, curves for heritabilities and genetic variances were U-shaped, with largest estimates at the extreme ends of the THI scale. For EM, heritability increased from THI 25 (h2 = 0.13) to THI 71 (h2 = 0.39). The trait-specific alterations of genetic parameters along the THI gradient indicate pronounced genetic differentiation due to intrauterine HS for NRR56, MAST, DD, and EM, but decreasing genetic variation for MKG and ICFI. Genetic correlations smaller than 0.80 for NRR56, MAST, DD, and EM between THI 65 with corresponding traits at remaining THI indicated genotype by environment interactions. The lowest genetic correlations were identified when considering the most distant THI. For MKG, fat%, SCS, and ICFI, genetic correlations throughout were larger than 0.80, disproving concerns for any genotype by environment interactions. Variations in genetic (co)variance components across prenatal THI may be due to epigenetic modifications in the offspring genome, triggered by in utero HS. Epigenetic modifications have a persistent effect on phenotypic responses, even for traits recorded late in life. However, it is imperative to infer the underlying epigenetic mechanisms in ongoing molecular experiments.

With regard to potential applications of genomic selection in small numbered breeds, we evaluated genomic models and focused on potential candidate gene annotations for weight and meat quality traits in the local Rotes Höhenvieh (RHV) breed. Traits included 6,003 birth weights (BWT), 5,719 200 d-weights (200dw), 4,594 365 d-weights (365dw), and 547 records for intramuscular fat content (IMF). A total of 581,304 SNP from 370 genotyped cattle with phenotypic records were included in genomic analyses. Model evaluations focused on single- and multiple-trait models with direct and with direct and maternal genetic effects. Genetic relationship matrices were based on pedigree (A-matrix), SNP markers (G-matrix), or both (H-matrix). Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) were carried out using linear mixed models to identify potential candidate genes for the traits of interest. De-regressed proofs (DRP) for direct and maternal genetic components were used as pseudo-phenotypes in the GWAS. Accuracies of direct breeding values were higher from models based on G or on H compared to A. Highest accuracies (> 0.89) were obtained for IMF with multiple-trait models using the G-matrix. Direct heritabilities with maternal genetic effects ranged from 0.62 to 0.66 for BWT, from 0.45 to 0.55 for 200dW, from 0.40 to 0.44 for 365dW, and from 0.48 to 0.75 for IMF. Maternal heritabilities for BWT, 200dW, and 365dW were in a narrow range from 0.21 to 0.24, 0.24 to 0.27, and 0.21 to 0.25, respectively, and from 0.25 to 0.65 for IMF. Direct genetic correlations among body weight traits were positive and favorable, and very similar from different models but showed a stronger variation with 0.31 (A), −0.13 (G), and 0.45 (H) between BWT and IMF. In gene annotations, we identified 6, 3, 1, and 6 potential candidate genes for direct genetic effect on BWT, 200dW, 365dW, and IMF traits, respectively. Regarding maternal genetic effects, four (SHROOM3, ZNF609, PECAM1, and TEX2) and two (TMEM182 and SEC11A) genes were detected as potential candidate genes for BWT and 365dW, respectively. Potential candidate genes for maternal effect on IMF were GRHL2, FGA, FGB, and CTNNA3. As the most important finding from a practical breeding perspective, a small number of genotyped RHV cattle enabled accurate breeding values for high heritability IMF.

This research paper focuses on time-lagged heat stress (HS) effects from an across-generation perspective. Temperature × humidity indexes (THI) from the last 8 weeks of pregnancy were associated with subsequent female offspring performances. The offspring dataset considered 172 905 Holstein dairy cows from calving years 2002–2013 from 1,968 herds, located in the German federal state of Hesse. Production traits included milk yield (MKG), protein percentage (PRO%), fat percentage (FAT%), somatic cell score (SCS) and milk urea nitrogen (MUN) from the first official test-day in first lactation. Female fertility traits were the non-return-rate after 56 d (NRR56) in heifers and the interval from calving to first insemination (ICFI) in first parity cows. Longevity traits were the length of productive life (LPL), lifetime productivity in milk yield (LTP-MKG) and milk yield per day of life (MKG-DL). The association analyzes for 10 traits combined with meteorological data from 8 single weeks before calving implied in total 80 different runs. THI ≥50 from all single 8 weeks before calving had unfavorably significant effects on FAT%, ICFI and LPL. Heat stress in terms of THI ≥60 from the last 3 weeks before calving impaired MKG. NRR56 decreased with increasing THI, as observed for all 6 weeks before calving. LTP-MKG and MKG-DL decreased due to high THI in the last 4 weeks before calving. Heat stress (THI ≥60) during late pregnancy had no significantly unfavorable impact on PRO% and MUN. Interestingly, SCS in offspring declined with increasing THI during late pregnancy. In conclusion, for most of the primary and functional traits, unfavorable impact of HS from the dry period on time-lagged performances in offspring was identified, even on longevity. From a practical perspective, our data suggest to provide HS abatement to late gestation dams to avoid long-term adverse effects on the offspring.

Impact of direct heat stress (HS) on genetic parameter estimates, i.e., HS close to the trait recording date, was verified in several previous studies conducted in dairy and beef cattle populations. The aim of the present study was to analyze the impact of time-lagged HS at different recording periods during late pregnancy (a.p.) and postpartum (p.p.) on genetic parameter estimates for birth weight (BWT) and weight gain traits (200 d- and 365 d-weight gain (200dg, 365dg)) in offspring of the dual-purpose cattle breed “Rotes Höhenvieh” (RHV). Furthermore, we estimated genetic correlations within traits across time-lagged climatic indicators, in order to proof possible genotype by environment interactions (G×E). Trait recording included 5,434 observations for BWT, 3,679 observations for 200dg and 2,998 observations for 365dg. Time-lagged climatic descriptors were classes for the mean temperature humidity index (mTHI) and number of HS days (nHS) from the following periods: 7 d-period a.p. (BWT), 56 d-period a.p., and 56 d-period p.p. (200dg and 365dg). Genetic parameters were estimated via 2-trait animal models, i.e., defining the same trait in different climatic environments as different traits. Genetic variances and heritabilities for all traits increased with increasing mTHI- and nHS-classes for all recording periods, indicating pronounced genetic differentiation with regard to time-lagged in utero HS and HS directly after birth. Similarly, in low mTHI- and nHS-classes indicating cold stress, genetic variances, and heritabilities were larger than for temperate climates. Genetic correlations substantially smaller than 0.80 indicating G × E were observed when considering same traits from mTHI- and nHS-classes in greater distance. Estimated breeding values (EBV) of the 10 most influential sires with the largest number of offspring records fluctuated across mTHI- and nHS-classes. Correlations between sire EBV for same traits from distant climatic classes confirmed the genetic correlation estimates. Sires displaying stable EBV with climatic alterations were also identified. Selection of those sires might contribute to improved robustness in the RHV outdoor population genetically.