Early institutional or orphanage rearing, typically characterized by profound psychosocial deprivation, has been associated with adjustment difficulties that may persist long after adoption (for a review, see Gunnar 2001). In particular, post-institutionalized (PI) youth, especially those having experienced longer durations of adverse care, are more likely to show deficits in social cognition (e.g., Theory of Mind, Colvert et al. 2008b; Tarullo et al. 2007; emotion processing, Parker and Nelson 2005; Wismer Fries and Pollak 2004). These difficulties in recognizing and understanding others’ thoughts and feelings are likely to hinder PI youths’ ability to navigate social interactions with peers, which become increasingly complex in adolescence (Steinberg and Morris 2001). As such, PI youth may become targets of peers’ rebuffs and abuse, common sequelae of social cognitive deficits in normative samples (e.g., Kaukiainen et al. 2002). Indeed, early institutional deprivation has been linked to elevated social problems in broad-based functional assessments (Groze and Ileana 1996; Gunnar et al. 2007; Hawk and McCall 2011), and several studies have described lower peer acceptance and difficulties forming and maintaining intimate friendships years after adoption (e.g., Hodges and Tizard 1989; Tizard and Hodges 1978). Little research to date has examined distinct aspects of peer relations in PI populations. Often, numerous aspects of peer problems such as peer acceptance, isolation, and verbal and physical bullying have been combined into one scale for analysis (e.g., Rutter et al. 2001). Furthermore, because the focus has often been on youths’ behavior (e.g., is she aggressive?) and not treatment by peers (e.g., is she victimized?), our understanding of PI children and adolescents’ peer relations is somewhat one-sided. In one exception, Raaska et al. (2012) assessed self-reported experiences of bullying in 9- to 15-year-old internationally adopted youth, some of whom had experienced institutional care prior to adoption. Compared to youth raised in their natal families, younger adoptees were more likely to be victimized, while older adoptees were less likely to bully others. In turn, rejection and victimization by peers may promote emotional difficulties in PI children and adolescents. In normative samples, peer maltreatment has been associated with increases in internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression, loneliness; for a review, see Hawker and Boulton 2000). However, the relationship between peer victimization and emotional problems has not been examined in PI youth, despite research documenting heightened levels of internalizing problems in this population in adolescence (Colvert et al. 2008a; Tieman et al. 2005). Thus, the present study examined multiple aspects of peer relationships, including peer aggression, victimization and rejection, in PI youth adopted as infants or young children compared to youth who were raised in their families of origin. This comparison group was selected to allow for an approximate match to PI participants on the basis of parent education and family socio-economic status. In addition to measuring overt forms of victimization, we also measured relational victimization (e.g., exclusion, friendship manipulation; Crick and Grotpeter 1995), as research has shown that it makes unique contributions to psychosocial adjustment (Crick and Grotpeter 1996). We expected that PI youth, particularly those having experienced longer durations of institutional care, would experience lower peer acceptance and more peer victimization. We also hypothesized that these experiences would mediate the relation between early institutional care status and internalizing symptoms. Given mixed findings regarding overt aggression in PI youth (e.g., Merz and McCall 2010; Gunnar et al. 2007), and the lack of information about relational aggression, we did not make strong predictions about whether these behaviors would be elevated. We also examined differences in prosocial behavior and social withdrawal, because these behaviors are important predictors of social adjustment (e.g., Boivin et al. 1995; Crick 1996). Based on studies of domestic and international adoptees, we hypothesized that being older at adoption (i.e., 12 months or older) would be associated with more negative outcomes (for a review, see Zeanah et al. 2011). Finally, we explored whether gender moderated the associations between early institutional care and peer functioning. Some studies of PI children have reported more adverse effects for boys compared to girls, for instance, with respect to behavior problems and peer victimization (Bos et al. 2011; Raaska et al. 2012), though others find no gender interactions (Gunnar et al. 2007; Juffer and Van IJzendoorn 2005). Given these mixed findings, we explored but did not make directional predictions for gender effects.
